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1 Disturbance may cause community composition across sites to become more or less homogenous, depending on the importance of different processes involved in community assembly. In north-eastern North America and Europe local (alpha) diversity of forest plants is lower in forests growing on former agricultural fields (recent forests) than in older (ancient) forests, but little is known about the influence of land-use history on the degree of compositional differentiation among sites (beta diversity). 2 Here we analyse data from 1446 sites in ancient and recent forests across 11 different landscapes in north-eastern North America and Europe to demonstrate decreases in beta diversity and in the strength of species-environment relationships in recent vs. ancient forests. 3 The magnitude of environmental variability among sites did not differ between the two forest types. This suggests the difference in beta diversity between ancient and recent forests was not due to different degrees of environmental heterogeneity, but rather to dispersal filters that constrain the pool of species initially colonizing recent forests. 4 The observed effects of community homogenization and weakened relationships between species distributions and environmental gradients appear to persist for decades or longer. The legacy of human land-use history in spatial patterns of biodiversity may endure, both within individual sites and across sites, for decades if not centuries.

1 In north European rural landscapes, abandonment of small farms and agricultural intensification have led to a decline in semi-natural grassland, with associated biodiversity loss. Although species richness response to land-use change in rural landscapes is relatively well studied, few have examined its effects on plant species composition over time. 2 In this study, four life-history traits associated with spatiotemporal dispersal were analysed: seed size, seed dispersal attributes (e.g. awns, wings), seed bank persistence and plant longevity (annuals, perennial with and without clonal ability). I investigated how differences in distribution of these traits among plants in semi-natural grasslands are related to current and historical landscape configuration. 3 The distributions of two out of the four investigated traits, longevity and seed bank persistence, were correlated with grassland connectivity and area, whereas seed size and seed dispersal attributes were not. The proportion of short-lived plants was positively associated with current grassland connectivity and grassland area, whereas long-lived species, with and without clonal ability, were unrelated to current grassland connectivity and area. 4 In contrast, short-lived plants were not affected by historical grassland connectivity, but the proportion of long-lived clonal plants was negatively associated with high historical grassland connectivity and large grassland area. In addition, the proportion of species with long persistence in the seed bank was negatively associated with historical grassland connectivity. 5 The result suggests that there are two main strategies to persist in response to landscape fragmentation: either persist in the seed bank or disperse vegetatively. The higher sensitivity to isolation among short-lived plants and plants without clonal ability calls attention to the importance of considering life-history traits to understand plant community dynamics fully over time. In the long term, reduction in historical connectivity and grassland area will thus create a grassland community dominated by clonal long-lived plants and plants with a persistent seed bank. 6 This study shows that both spatial and temporal effects of landscape configuration are important factors structuring local plant species composition in grasslands. The results bring important insights to our understanding of large-scale ecological processes, and are also highly relevant to biodiversity conservation in fragmented agricultural landscapes worldwide.

1 Species-rich semi-natural grasslands in Europe developed during prehistoric times and have endured due to human activity. At the same time, intensive grassland management or changes in land use may result in species extinction. As a consequence, plant diversity in semi-natural calcareous grasslands may be related to both historical and current human population density. 2 We hypothesize that current vascular plant diversity in semi-natural calcareous grasslands is positively correlated with the Late Iron Age (c. 800-1000 years ago) density of human settlements (indicated by Late Iron Age fortresses and villages) due to enhancement of grassland extent and species dispersal, and negatively correlated with current human population density due to habitat loss and deterioration. 3 We described the size of the community vascular plant species pool, species richness per 1 m² and the relative richness (richness divided by the size of the species pool) in 45 thin soil, calcareous (alvar) grasslands in Estonia. In addition to historical and current human population density we considered simultaneously the effects of grassland area, connectivity to other alvar grasslands, elevation above sea level (indicating grassland age), soil pH, soil N, soil P, soil depth, soil depth heterogeneity, geographical east-west gradient, precipitation and spatial autocorrelation. 4 Both the size of the community species pool and the species richness are significantly correlated with the Late Iron Age human population density. In addition, species richness was unimodally related to the current human population density. The relative richness (species 'packing density') was highest in the intermediate current human population densities, indicative of moderate land-use intensity. 5 Community species pool size decreased non-linearly with increasing soil N, and was highest at intermediate elevation. Small-scale richness was greater when sites were well connected and when the elevation was intermediate. Spatial autocorrelation was also significant for both species pool size and small-scale richness. 6 In summary, human land-use legacy from prehistoric times is an important aspect in plant ecology, which could be an important contributor to the current variation in biodiversity.

The fall of the Soviet Union was a transformative event for the national political economies of Eastern Europe, leading not only to new regimes of ownership and development but to dramatic changes in the natural world itself. This painstakingly researched volume focuses on the emblematic case of postsocialist Romania, in which the transition from collectivization to privatization profoundly reshaped the nation's forests, farmlands, and rivers. From bureaucrats abetting illegal deforestation to peasants opposing government agricultural policies, it reveals the social and political mechanisms by which neoliberalism was introduced into the Romanian landscape.

Bees are a functionally important and economically valuable group, but are threatened by land‐use conversion and intensification. Such pressures are not expected to affect all species identically; rather, they are likely to be mediated by the species' ecological traits. Understanding which types of species are most vulnerable under which land uses is an important step towards effective conservation planning. We collated occurrence and abundance data for 257 bee species at 1584 European sites from surveys reported in 30 published papers (70 056 records) and combined them with species‐level ecological trait data. We used mixed‐effects models to assess the importance of land use (land‐use class, agricultural use‐intensity and a remotely‐sensed measure of vegetation), traits and trait × land‐use interactions, in explaining species occurrence and abundance. Species' sensitivity to land use was most strongly influenced by flight season duration and foraging range, but also by niche breadth, reproductive strategy and phenology, with effects that differed among cropland, pastoral and urban habitats. Synthesis and applications. Rather than targeting particular species or settings, conservation actions may be more effective if focused on mitigating situations where species' traits strongly and negatively interact with land‐use pressures. We find evidence that low‐intensity agriculture can maintain relatively diverse bee communities; in more intensive settings, added floral resources may be beneficial, but will require careful placement with respect to foraging ranges of smaller bee species. Protection of semi‐natural habitats is essential, however; in particular, conversion to urban environments could have severe effects on bee diversity and pollination services. Our results highlight the importance of exploring how ecological traits mediate species responses to human impacts, but further research is needed to enhance the predictive ability of such analyses.

To map and characterize anthropogenic transformation of the terrestrial biosphere before and during the Industrial Revolution, from 1700 to 2000. Global. Anthropogenic biomes (anthromes) were mapped for 1700, 1800, 1900 and 2000 using a rule-based anthrome classification model applied to gridded global data for human population density and land use. Anthropogenic transformation of terrestrial biomes was then characterized by map comparisons at century intervals. In 1700, nearly half of the terrestrial biosphere was wild, without human settlements or substantial land use. Most of the remainder was in a seminatural state (45%) having only minor use for agriculture and settlements. By 2000, the opposite was true, with the majority of the biosphere in agricultural and settled anthromes, less than 20% seminatural and only a quarter left wild. Anthropogenic transformation of the biosphere during the Industrial Revolution resulted about equally from land-use expansion into wildlands and intensification of land use within seminatural anthromes. Transformation pathways differed strongly between biomes and regions, with some remaining mostly wild but with the majority almost completely transformed into rangelands, croplands and villages. In the process of transforming almost 39% of earth's total ice-free surface into agricultural land and settlements, an additional 37% of global land without such use has become embedded within agricultural and settled anthromes. Between 1700 and 2000, the terrestrial biosphere made the critical transition from mostly wild to mostly anthropogenic, passing the 50% mark early in the 20th century. At present, and ever more in the future, the form and process of terrestrial ecosystems in most biomes will be predominantly anthropogenic, the product of land use and other direct human interactions with ecosystems. Ecological research and conservation efforts in all but a few biomes would benefit from a primary focus on the novel remnant, recovering and managed ecosystems embedded within used lands.

Over half of the European landscape is under agricultural management and has been for millennia. Many species and ecosystems of conservation concern in Europe depend on agricultural management and are showing ongoing declines. Agri-environment schemes (AES) are designed partly to address this. They are a major source of nature conservation funding within the European Union (EU) and the highest conservation expenditure in Europe. We reviewed the structure of current AES across Europe. Since a 2003 review questioned the overall effectiveness of AES for biodiversity, there has been a plethora of case studies and meta-analyses examining their effectiveness. Most syntheses demonstrate general increases in farmland biodiversity in response to AES, with the size of the effect depending on the structure and management of the surrounding landscape. This is important in the light of successive EU enlargement and ongoing reforms of AES. We examined the change in effect size over time by merging the data sets of 3 recent meta-analyses and found that schemes implemented after revision of the EU's agri-environmental programs in 2007 were not more effective than schemes implemented before revision. Furthermore, schemes aimed at areas out of production (such as field margins and hedgerows) are more effective at enhancing species richness than those aimed at productive areas (such as arable crops or grasslands). Outstanding research questions include whether AES enhance ecosystem services, whether they are more effective in agriculturally marginal areas than in intensively farmed areas, whether they are more or less cost-effective for farmland biodiversity than protected areas, and how much their effectiveness is influenced by farmer training and advice? The general lesson from the European experience is that AES can be effective for conserving wildlife on farmland, but they are expensive and need to be carefully designed and targeted.

Conservation efforts to protect forested landscapes are challenged by climate projections that suggest substantial restructuring of vegetation and disturbance regimes in the future. In this regard, paleoecological records that describe ecosystem responses to past variations in climate, fire, and human activity offer critical information for assessing present landscape conditions and future landscape vulnerability. We illustrate this point drawing on 8 sites in the northwestern United States, New Zealand, Patagonia, and central and southern Europe that have undergone different levels of climate and land-use change. These sites fall along a gradient of landscape conditions that range from nearly pristine (i.e., vegetation and disturbance shaped primarily by past climate and biophysical constraints) to highly altered (i.e., landscapes that have been intensely modified by past human activity). Position on this gradient has implications for understanding the role of natural and anthropogenic disturbance in shaping ecosystem dynamics and assessments of present biodiversity, including recognizing missing or overrepresented species. Dramatic vegetation reorganization occurred at all study sites as a result of postglacial climate variations. In nearly pristine landscapes, such as those in Yellowstone National Park, climate has remained the primary driver of ecosystem change up to the present day. In Europe, natural vegetation-climate-fire linkages were broken 6000-8000 years ago with the onset of Neolithic farming, and in New Zealand, natural linkages were first lost about 700 years ago with arrival of the Maori people. In the U.S. Northwest and Patagonia, the greatest landscape alteration occurred in the last 150 years with Euro-American settlement. Paleoecology is sometimes the best and only tool for evaluating the degree of landscape alteration and the extent to which landscapes retain natural components. Information on landscape-level history thus helps assess current ecological change, clarify management objectives, and define conservation strategies that seek to protect both natural and cultural elements. Los esfuerzos de conservación para proteger los paisajes forestales tienen un reto gracias a las proyecciones climáticas que sugieren restructuraciones sustanciales de la vegetación y regímenes de perturbaciones en el futuro. En este aspecto, los registros paleoecológicos que describen las respuestas de los ecosistemas a variaciones pasadas del clima, incendios y actividad humana ofrecen información crítica para la evaluación de las condiciones actuales y la vulnerabilidad futura de los paisajes. Ilustramos este punto a partir de ocho sitios en el noroeste de los Estados Unidos, Nueva Zelanda, la Patagonia y el centro y el sur de Europa que han sufrido diferentes niveles de cambio climático y del uso de suelo. Estos sitios caen dentro de un gradiente de condiciones paisajísticas que varían desde casi prístinas (es decir, la vegetación y la perturbación moldeados por principalmente por restricciones climáticas y biofísicas pasadas) hasta altamente alteradas (es decir, paisajes que han sido modificados intensamente por la actividad humana anterior). La posición dentro de este gradiente tiene implicaciones para el entendimiento del papel de la perturbación natural y antropogénica en la formación de las dinámicas del ecosistema y las valoraciones de la biodiversidad actual, incluyendo el reconocimiento de especies faltantes o mal representadas. Ocurrió una reorganización dramática de la vegetación en todos los sitios de estudio como resultado de las variaciones climáticas posglaciales. En los paisajes casi prístinos, como aquellos en el Parque Nacional Yellowstone, el clima ha permanecido como el principal conductor del cambio ambiental hasta el día de hoy. En Europa, las conexiones naturales vegetación-clima-incendios se rompieron hace 6000 - 8000 año con el inicio de la agricultura neolítica, y en Nueva Zelanda las conexiones naturales se perdieron primero hace 700 años con la llegada de los Maori. En el noroeste de los Estados Unidos y en la Patagonia la mayor alteración del paisaje ocurrió en los últimos 150 años con el asentamiento Euro-Americano. La paleocología es a veces la única y mejor herramienta para evaluar el grado de alteración de un paisaje y el área hasta la cual los paisajes mantienen los componentes naturales. Por lo tanto, la información sobre el paisaje a nivel histórico ayuda a evaluar el cambio ecológico actual, a clarificar los objetivos del manejo, y a definir las estrategias de conservación que buscan proteger tanto a los elementos naturales como a los culturales.

Context Anthropogenic landscape change is an important driver shaping our environment. Historical landscape analysis contributes to the monitoring and understanding of these change processes. Such analyses are often focused on specific spatial scales and single research methods, thus covering only limited aspects of landscape change. Objectives Here, we aim to assess the potential of combining the analysis of historical aerial imagery and local stakeholder interviews for landscape change studies using a standardized mapping and interviewing approach. Methods We compared six agricultural landscapes across Europe and mapped land-cover using historical aerial imagery (starting between 1930 and 1980, depending on data availability, until recent years) with an object-based image analysis and random forest classification. For local perspectives of landscape change, we conducted oral history interviews (OHIs) with (almost) retired farmers. Comparing recorded landscape changes from both approaches provided insight into advantages of combining these two methods. Results Object-based analysis enabled the identification of high-resolution land-cover dynamics, with scale enlargement and cropland/grassland expansion being the most commonly recurring trends across European landscapes. Perceived landscape changes identified in the OHIs included changes in farm management, landscape structure, and infrastructure. Farmers also reported drivers and personal values associated with landscape change. Combining the two historical landscape analysis tools resulted in a qualitative and quantitative understanding of changes in land-cover, land use, and land management. Conclusions Comparing physical land-cover change with local farmer perspectives is key to a comprehensive understanding of landscape change. There are different ways the two methods can be combined, leading to different venues for science and policy making.

1. Many studies have reported honeybee colony losses in human-dominated landscapes.While bee floral food resources have been drastically reduced over past decades in humandominatedlandscapes, no field study has yet been undertaken to determine whether there is acarry-over effect between seasonal disruption in floral resource availability and high colonylosses.2. We investigated if a decline in the harvest of pollen by honeybees in spring affected managedhoneybee colony dynamics (brood size, adult population and honey reserves) and health(Varroa mite loads and colony survival) throughout the beekeeping season.3. A decline in pollen harvest was associated with a direct reduction in brood production,leading to a negative effect on the adult population size later in the season, and lower honeyreserves before the onset of winter. Furthermore, the decline in pollen harvest negativelyimpacted the health of the colony, resulting in higher Varroa mite loads and higher seasonaland winter colony losses.4. Early-warning signs of these carry-over effects were identified, showing that preferentialinvestment in honey reserves instead of brood production early in the season increased thedecline in pollen harvest and its associated carry-over effects.5. Synthesis and applications. The results suggest that the decline in pollen harvest may havebeen overlooked as a cause of pollen shortage and associated bee colony losses. Strategies toavoid such losses in intensive farmland systems include (i) limiting or avoiding honey harvestsin spring, (ii) monitoring colonies for early-warning signals of colony failure and (iii) increasingthe amount of floral resources available through wise land-use management.