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Manufacturing sustainable sodium ion batteries with high energy density and cyclability requires a uniquely tailored technology and a close attention to the economical and environmental factors. In this work, we summarized the most important design metrics in sodium ion batteries with the emphasis on cathode materials and outlined a transparent data reporting approach based on common metrics for performance evaluation of future technologies. Sodium-ion batteries are considered as one of the most promising alternatives to lithium-based battery technologies. Despite the growing research in this field, the implementation of this technology has been practically hindered due to a lack of high energy density cathode materials with a long cycle-life. In this perspective, we first provide an overview of the milestones in the development of Na-ion battery (NIB) systems over time. Next, we discuss critical metrics in extraction of key elements used in NIB cathode materials which may impact the supply chain in near future. Finally, in the quest of most promising cathode materials for the next generation of NIBs, we overlay an extensive perspective on the main findings in design and test of more than 295 reports in the past 10 years, exhibiting that layered oxides, Prussian blue analogs (PBAs) and polyanions are leading candidates for cathode materials. An in-depth comparison of energy density and capacity retention of all the currently available cathode materials is also provided. In this perspective, we also highlight the importance of large data analysis for sustainable material design based on available datasets. The insights provided in this perspective, along with a more transparent data reporting approach and an implementation of common metrics for performance evaluation of NIBs can help accelerate future cathode materials design in the NIB field. Graphical abstract

Critical developments of advanced aqueous redox flow battery technologies are reviewed. Long duration energy storage oriented cell configuration and materials design strategies for the developments of aqueous redox flow batteries are discussed Long-duration energy storage (LDES) is playing an increasingly significant role in the integration of intermittent and unstable renewable energy resources into future decarbonized grids. Aqueous redox flow batteries (ARFBs) with intrinsic high scalability, safety and power capability can be promising candidates for LDES if a substantially decreased levelized cost of storage is achieved. In this Perspective, we present a top-down analysis of existing ARFBs for long-duration applications, including ARFB cell configurations and materials design strategies for both membranes and redox active materials. In addition, we discuss the types of testing and demonstration needed at the lab-scale for feasible projection for future large-scale systems. The LDES-oriented materials design strategies serve as a guidance for the research and developments for future advanced ARFBs in large-scale deployments. Graphical abstract

Merits and drawbacks of representative inorganic and organic redox active electrolytes used in aqueous redox flow batteries are discussed. Appropriate assessment and reporting methods of the cycling stability of electrolyte materials are recommended. Future directions in developing advanced electrolyte materials are presented. Redox flow batteries represent a viable technology for scalable energy storage. However, widespread market adoption of flow battery technologies is significantly impeded by the lack of robust, low-cost redox active electrolyte materials. In this perspective, we highlight the merits and drawbacks of representative inorganic and organic redox active electrolytes. We also provide a number of research strategies to develop high-performance redox active electrolytes to enable energy dense, durable, low-cost flow battery technologies. Graphical abstract

Highlights Zn-MnO 2 batteries promise safe, reliable energy storage, and this roadmap outlines a combination of manufacturing strategies and technical innovations that could make this goal achievable. Approaches such as improved efficiency of manufacturing and increasing active material utilization will be important to getting costs as low as $100/kWh, but key materials innovations that facilitate the full 2-electron capacity utilization of MnO 2 , the use of high energy density 3D electrodes, and the promise of a separator-free battery with greater than 2V potential offer a route to batteries at $50/kWh or less. Large-scale energy storage is certain to play a significant, enabling role in the evolution of the emerging electrical grid. Battery-based storage, while not a dominant form of storage today, has opportunity to expand its utility through safe, reliable, and cost-effective technologies. Here, secondary Zn–MnO 2 batteries are highlighted as a promising extension of ubiquitous primary alkaline batteries, offering a safe, environmentally friendly chemistry in a scalable and practical energy dense technology. Importantly, there is a very realistic pathway to also making such batteries cost-effective at price points of $50/kWh or lower. By examining manufacturing examples at the Zn–MnO 2 battery manufacturer Urban Electric Power, a roadmap has been created to realize such low-cost systems. By focusing on manufacturing optimization through reduced materials waste, scalable manufacturing, and effective materials selection, costs can be significantly reduced. Ultimately, though, coupling these approaches with emerging research and development advances to enable full capacity active materials utilization and battery voltages greater than 2V are likely needed to drive costs below a target of $50/kWh. Reaching this commercially important goal, especially with a chemistry that is safe, well-known, and reliably effective stands to inject Zn–MnO 2 batteries in the storage landscape at a critical time in energy storage development and deployment. Graphical abstract

Battery energy storage is critical to decarbonizing future power systems, and the cost of battery degradation within power system operations is crucial to ensure economic utilization of battery resources and provide a fair return to their investors. Power system operators dispatch assets by solving optimization problems of extreme complexity that include thousands of generators and transmission lines, and degradation models to be incorporated into power system optimization must be efficient to compute while capturing key degradation factors relevant to grid operations. This paper will compare various degradation models that are incorporable into power system optimization; each has different computation complexities and modeling focuses. This paper will summarize the pros and cons of different models, and how they may suit different battery technologies or configurations. Besides modeling, the paper discusses the opportunity cost of degradation and the battery warranty terms, both will impact the design and implementation of degradation models in power systems. The paper summarizes the comparison and future directions for designing degradation models for grid-scale batteries. Graphical abstract