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Derivational affixes are not always automatically classified into functional or lexical categories. Although they are treated differently in various approaches, a shared view contends that the status of a suffix is controversial when it forms categorially incoherent words. However, it is debatable even when it forms words of a single category. This study argues that the Bifurcated Lexical Model proposed by Joseph E. Emonds is promising in this respect. With two subcomponents of the lexicon that, respectively, store functional and lexical morphemes, the model allows an affix to behave both as a functional and a lexical morpheme. This study demonstrates that the model can successfully account for the properties of the deverbal noun-forming suffix -ment in Present-Day English. The -ment nouns newly retrieved from the Oxford English Dictionary Online include instances in which -ment attaches to non-verbal elements and converted words. While such nouns may pose potential challenges to the perspective of an affix as a functional morpheme, their existence is not surprising but rather predictable within the model that allows for the flexibility of an affix in the dichotomy between functional and lexical categories.

Although phonological deficits are unanimously recognized as one of the key manifestations of developmental dyslexia, a growing body of research has reported impairments in morphological abilities. Our study aimed at casting further light on this domain by investigating the morphological awareness skills of 21 children with dyslexia (mean age 9.10 years old) and 24 children with typical development (mean age 10.3 years old). All children were monolingual speakers of Italian, which is a morphologically rich language characterized by complex inflectional and derivational paradigms. We developed an experimental protocol inspired by Berko’s Wug test and composed of 11 tasks addressing inflectional and derivational processes. Participants were asked to manipulate nonwords of various lexical categories, modeled after the phonotactic structure of Italian, and manipulation involved both word formation and base retrieval. Conditions of the experiments were based on verb conjugation classes differing in frequency, productivity, regularity, and formal transparency. Results confirmed that morphological skills are impaired in dyslexic children, who performed significantly more poorly than their age-matched peers in all tasks. Children with dyslexia were especially challenged by tasks and conditions requiring advanced morphological awareness skills, such as the retrieval of infinitives of infrequent and irregular conjugation classes. The educational and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.

Phonological alternations are often specific to morphosyntactic context. For example, stress shift in English occurs in the presence of some suffixes, -al , but not others, -ing : , , . In some cases a phonological process applies only in words of certain lexical categories. Previous theories have stipulated that such morphosyntactically conditioned phonology is word-bounded. In this paper we present a number of long-distance morphologically conditioned phonological effects, cases where phonological processes within one word are conditioned by another word or the presence of a morpheme in another word. We provide a model, Cophonologies by Phase, which extends Cophonology Theory, intended to capture word-internal and lexically specified phonological alternations, to cyclically generated syntactic constituents. We show that Cophonologies by Phase makes better predictions about the long-distance morphologically conditioned phonological effects we find across languages than previous frameworks. Furthermore, Cophonologies by Phase derives such effects without requiring the phonological component to directly reference syntactic features or structure.

In a number of signed languages, the distinction between nouns and verbs is evident in the morphophonology of the signs themselves. Here we use a novel elicitation paradigm to investigate the systematicity, emergence, and development of the noun-verb distinction (qua objects vs. actions) in an established sign language, American Sign Language (ASL), an emerging sign language, Nicaraguan Sign Language (NSL), and in the precursor to NSL, Nicaraguan homesigns. We show that a distinction between nouns and verbs is marked (by utterance position and movement size) and thus present in all groups––even homesigners, who have invented their systems without a conventional language model. However, there is also evidence of emerging crosslinguistic variation in whether a base hand is used to mark the noun-verb contrast. Finally, variation in how movement repetition and base hand are used across Nicaraguan groups offers insight into the pressures that influence the development of a linguistic system. Specifically, early signers of NSL use movement repetition and base hand in ways similar to homesigners but different from signers who entered the NSL community more recently, suggesting that intergenerational transmission to new learners (not just sharing a language with a community) plays a key role in the development of these devices. These results bear not only on the importance of the noun-verb distinction in human communication, but also on how this distinction emerges and develops in a new (sign) language.

High frequency words play a key role in language acquisition, with recent work suggesting they may serve both speech segmentation and lexical categorisation. However, it is not yet known whether infants can detect novel high frequency words in continuous speech, nor whether they can use them to help learning for segmentation and categorisation at the same time. For instance, when hearing “ you eat the biscuit ”, can children use the high-frequency words “ you ” and “ the ” to segment out “ eat ” and “ biscuit ”, and determine their respective lexical categories? We tested this in two experiments. In Experiment 1, we familiarised 12-month-old infants with continuous artificial speech comprising repetitions of target words , which were preceded by high-frequency marker words that distinguished the targets into two distributional categories. In Experiment 2, we repeated the task using the same language but with additional phonological cues to word and category structure. In both studies, we measured learning with head-turn preference tests of segmentation and categorisation, and compared performance against a control group that heard the artificial speech without the marker words (i.e., just the targets). There was no evidence that high frequency words helped either speech segmentation or grammatical categorisation. However, segmentation was seen to improve when the distributional information was supplemented with phonological cues (Experiment 2). In both experiments, exploratory analysis indicated that infants’ looking behaviour was related to their linguistic maturity (indexed by infants’ vocabulary scores) with infants with high versus low vocabulary scores displaying novelty and familiarity preferences, respectively. We propose that high-frequency words must reach a critical threshold of familiarity before they can be of significant benefit to learning.

An increasing number of studies in pragmatics, second language acquisition, and related fields have opted to use sitcom conversations as a substitute for natural conversations in their analyses. However, few studies have critically examined the validity of this substitution. Taking this into consideration, the present study aims to examine the lexical similarities and differences between sitcom and natural conversations by utilizing the Friends Corpus and the Santa Barbara Corpus of Spoken American English as samples under a synthesized analytic framework of six lexical categories that have been frequently examined in previous research. The findings indicate that there are significant differences between sitcom and natural conversations at the lexical level, particularly in terms of word lengths, keywords, and the use of discourse markers, personal pronouns, vocatives, and religious words. While sitcom conversations tend to be more concise, interactive, evaluative, and involving, natural conversations provide more explanations for their speech acts and refer to their parties who are not present in the conversations. Additionally, sitcom conversations use more intensifiers and vocatives while using fewer tentative modals, expletives, and religious words. Based on these results, it can be concluded that sitcom conversations do not fully depict the conversations in sitcoms, and thus substituting natural conversations with those in sitcoms should be approached with caution in language teaching and research. This study provides insight into the differences in lexical patterns between two types of conversations, and highlights the importance of using natural conversations as a basis for language teaching and research.

This paper is concerned with the question of what adverbs in English are as a category. It argues that English adverbs are not positional variants of a single category together with adjectives but also do not constitute a separate lexical category on their own, as is commonly assumed. Instead, this paper advocates the position that adverbs can and should be assimilated with PPs and offers a comprehensive presentation of this view. In particular, it provides evidence that the morpheme -ly is not a suffix but a nominal root, which forms the basis of the analysis of adverbs as PPs. Furthermore, it shows that the PP analysis of adverbs is able to account for a variety of facts, including those that have been previously used as arguments for alternative analyses. Finally, this paper demonstrates that the PP analysis allows for a straightforward compositional semantics, using manner and degree adverbs as case studies, and provides an outlook into the cross-linguistic situation in the domain of adverbs from the perspective of their morphological structure.

Infants are highly sensitive to statistical patterns in their auditory language input that mark word categories (e.g., noun and verb). However, it is unknown whether experience with these cues facilitates the acquisition of semantic properties of word categories. In a study testing this hypothesis, infants first listened to an artificial language in which word categories were reliably distinguished by statistical cues (experimental group) or in which these properties did not cue category membership (control group). Both groups were then trained on identical pairings between the words and pictures from two categories (animals and vehicles). Only infants in the experimental group learned the trained associations between specific words and pictures. Moreover, these infants generalized the pattern to include novel pairings. These results suggest that experience with statistical cues marking lexical categories sets the stage for learning the meanings of individual words and for generalizing meanings to new category members.

Verbal nouns in Insular Celtic languages have long been a subject of interest because they are capable of exhibiting both nominal and verbal properties, posing a persistent challenge when it comes to determining their precise categorization. This study therefore seeks to examine the intersective gradience of verbal nouns in Scottish Gaelic from a functional-typological and multidimensional perspective, providing an insight into the interaction between their morphosyntactic, semantic, and pragmatic properties and their lexical categorization, and, consequently, encouraging a broader discussion on linguistic gradience. This hybrid category plays a central role in the clause structure of Scottish Gaelic, as it appears in a wide range of distinct grammatical constructions. Drawing on a range of diagnostic tests revealing the morphosyntactic and semantic properties of verbal nouns across various contexts (e.g., etymology, morphological structure, inflection, case marking, TAM features, syntactic function, types of modification, form and position of objects, distributional patterns, cleft constructions, argument structure, subcategorization, etc.), this line of research identifies two key environments, depending on whether the construction features a verbal noun functioning either as a verb or a noun. This distinction aims to illustrate the way in which these contexts condition the gradience of verbal nouns. By doing so, it provides strong evidence for their function along a continuum ranging from fully verbal to fully nominal depending on their syntactic context and semantic and pragmatic interpretation. In conclusion, the findings of this study suggest that the use of verbal nouns blurs the line between two lexical categories, often displaying mixed properties that challenge a rigid categorization.

This research is an attempt to investigate how lexical and functional terms are employed by EFL MA students. In order to accomplish this, a qualitative method was used to identify certain lexical and functional gaps in the students’ formation of sentences.  The main source of the research data was essays that were written by EFL MA students. The examination of students’ sentences revealed both functional and lexical errors; the students’ lexical errors included incorrect word choices, the inability to use homophones, the frequent use of unusual forms, and the absence of essential sentence components. With regard to the functional categories, the students’ sentences exhibited the omission of some auxiliary verbs, prepositions, and determiners, as well as the incorrect use of pronouns. Serious problems in the use of lexical and functional words generally decreased the quality of the sentences. To decrease these errors, a significant amount of instruction, supported by a variety of exercises to reinforce understanding of such words, should be provided in classrooms where English as a foreign language (EFL) is taught.