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"Linguistic complexity"
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INDIVIDUAL-LEVEL CONTACT LIMITS PHONOLOGICAL COMPLEXITY: EVIDENCE FROM BUNCHED AND RETROFLEX /ɹ
We compare the complexity of idiosyncratic sound patterns involving American English /ɹ/ with the relative simplicity of clear/dark /l/-allophony patterns found in English and other languages. For /ɹ/, we report an ultrasound-based articulatory study of twenty-seven speakers of American English. Two speakers use only retroflex /ɹ/, sixteen use only bunched /ɹ/, and nine use both /ɹ/ types, with idiosyncratic allophonic distributions. These allophony patterns are covert, because the difference between bunched and retroflex /ɹ/ is not readily perceived by listeners. We compare this typology of /ɹ/-allophony patterns to clear/dark /l/-allophony patterns in seventeen languages. On the basis of the observed patterns, we show that individual-level /ɹ/ allophony and language-level /l/ allophony exhibit similar phonetic grounding, but that /ɹ/-allophony patterns are considerably more complex. The low complexity of language-level /l/-allophony patterns, which are more readily perceived by listeners, is argued to be the result of individual-level contact in the development of sound patterns. More generally, we argue that familiar phonological patterns (which are relatively simple and homogeneous within communities) may arise from individual-level articulatory patterns, which may be complex and speaker-specific, by a process of koineization. We conclude that two classic properties of phonological rules, phonetic naturalness and simplicity, arise from different sources.
Journal Article
The semiotic ecology and linguistic complexity of an online game world
Multiplayer online games form complex semiotic ecologies that include game-generated texts, player-to-player communication and collaboration, and associated websites that support in-game play. This article describes an exploratory study of the massively multiplayer online game (MMO) World of Warcraft (WoW), with specific attention to its qualities as a setting for second language (L2) use and development. This empirical study seeks to answer the following question: What is the nature of the linguistic ecology that WoW players are exposed to? Many studies have described the developmental opportunities presented by commercially available gaming environments (e.g., Gee, 2003, 2007), their value as sites of literacy development (e.g., Squire, 2008a; Steinkuehler, 2008), and their potential as venues for second language (L2) use and learning (e.g., Peterson, 2010; Thorne, Black, & Sykes, 2009; Thorne & Fischer, 2012; Zheng, Young, Wagner & Brewer, 2009). There are, however, numerous outstanding questions regarding the quality and complexity of the linguistic environments associated with online commercially available games. This primarily descriptive research addresses this issue and aims to finely characterize the linguistic complexity of game-presented texts (or ‘quest texts’) as well as player generated game-external informational and strategy websites that form the expansive semiotic ecology of WoW game play. Questionnaires and interviews with Dutch and American gamers helped to identify a variety of widely used game-external websites. This information then informed the selection of texts that were analyzed for their linguistic complexity. By analysing the linguistic complexity of the texts that players regularly engage with, this study aims to empirically assess the resources and limitations of a representative and widely played MMO as an environment for L2 development.
Journal Article
Comparing the Linguistic Complexity in Receptive and Productive Modes
Several studies have investigated linguistic complexity as an index of proficiency and across genres. However, very little research has been conducted in determining the difference between the linguistic complexity during receptive and productive modes. This study, therefore, attempts to fill in such a gap by providing evidence on whether the linguistic complexity that pupils can process during receptive mode is higher than what they can utilize during productive mode. Specifically, this study sought to determine the linguistic complexity level of learners’ written narratives (i.e. productive mode) and reading passages most comprehensible to them (MCRPs) (i.e. receptive mode) and whether all linguistic complexity indices in MCRPs are higher than the linguistic complexity indices in written narratives. To address these objectives, this study used a narrative film to elicit the written narratives from the participants via story reconstruction. Eight graded narrative reading passages were also used to determine the most comprehensible reading passage via multiple-choice test. Using a microstructure analysis tool, the findings suggest that while the overall receptive linguistic complexity of Grades 2, 4, and 6 pupils is higher than their productive linguistic complexity, interestingly, not all indices of linguistic complexity are higher during productive mode. The implications of these findings for classroom teaching are considered more particularly in the selection of reading materials and the aspect of linguistic complexity that needs to be adjusted to facilitate comprehension. This paper, then, concludes with some research directions that would shed light on the receptive-productive dimensions of linguistic complexity.
Journal Article
Linguistic Complexity in Firm Disclosures: Obfuscation or Information?
Prior research generally interprets complex language in firms' disclosures as indicative of managerial obfuscation. However, complex language can also reflect the provision of complex information; for example, informative technical disclosure. As a consequence, linguistic complexity commingles two latent components—obfuscation and information—that are related to information asymmetry in opposite directions. We develop a novel empirical approach to estimate these two latent components within the context of quarterly earnings conference calls. We validate our estimates of these two latent components by examining their relation to information asymmetry. Consistent with our predictions, we find that our estimate of the information component is negatively associated with information asymmetry while our estimate of the obfuscation component is positively associated with information asymmetry. Our findings suggest that future research on linguistic complexity can construct more powerful tests by separately examining these two latent components of linguistic complexity.
Journal Article
The phraseological dimension in interlanguage complexity research
This article reports on the first results of a large-scale research programme that aims to define and circumscribe the construct of phraseological complexity and to theoretically and empirically demonstrate its relevance for second language theory. Within this broad agenda, the study has two main objectives. First, it investigates to what extent measures of phraseological complexity can be used to describe second language (L2) performance at different proficiency levels. Second, it compares measures of phraseological complexity with traditional measures of syntactic and lexical complexity. Variety and sophistication are postulated to be the first two dimensions of phraseological complexity, which is approached via relational co-occurrences, i.e. co-occurring words that appear in a specific structural or syntactic relation (e.g. adjective + noun, adverbial modifier + verb, verb + direct object). Phraseological diversity is operationalized as root type–token ratio computed for each syntactic relation. Two methods are tested to approach phraseological sophistication. First, sophisticated word combinations are defined as academic collocations that appear in the Academic Collocation List (Ackermann and Chen, 2013). Second, it is approximated with the average pointwise mutual information score as this measures has been shown to bring out word combinations made up of closely associated medium to low-frequency (i.e. advanced or sophisticated) words.
The study reveals that unlike traditional measures of syntactic and lexical complexity, measures of phraseological sophistication can be used to describe L2 performance at the B2, C1 and C2 levels of the Common European Framework of References for Languages (CEFR), thus suggesting that essential aspects of language development from upper-intermediate to very advanced proficiency level may be situated in the phraseological dimension.
Journal Article
Multiple approaches to complexity in second language research
In the past decades, there has been a surge in interest in the study of language complexity in second language (L2) research. In this article we provide an overview of current theoretical and methodological practices in L2 complexity research, while simultaneously framing these within the broader scientific interest into the notion of complexity. In addition to focusing on the role of complexity in L2 research, we trace how language complexity has figured in formal theoretical and typological linguistics. It is argued that L2 complexity research has often adopted a reductionist approach to the construct, both in terms of its definition and its operationalization. As such, previous L2 research has often confused related but conceptually distinct and operationally separable notions, such as relative and absolute complexity, and it has overemphasized syntactic and lexical forms of complexity at the expense of complexity related to morphology or linguistic interface phenomena. We then discuss a collection of five empirical studies which react to several of these issues by highlighting hitherto underexplored forms of complexity, adopting an explicitly cross-linguistic perspective or by proposing novel forms of L2 complexity measurement.
Journal Article
The effects of genres on the development of multifaceted linguistic complexity in Chinese learners of German: A longitudinal corpus analysis
Genre-based research holds significant theoretical and practical importance in second language acquisition (SLA). While many L2 English writing studies have suggested argumentative writing was generally more challenging than narrative, whether this generalization applies to typologically different languages, such as German with its complex morphological and structural properties, requires further investigation. Specifically, genre effects on L2 writing development remain insufficiently understood for non-English languages, particularly regarding complexities beyond syntactic and lexical. This study examines how genre influences the development of morphological, lexical, syntactic, and cohesive complexity in elementary-intermediate Chinese learners of German over time. A longitudinal corpus of narrative and argumentative essays from 21 learners, who wrote both genres, was analyzed. The results show that genre effects were evident but not straightforward, with no genre consistently exhibiting greater complexity. Over time, learners predominantly exhibited nonlinear development patterns, suggesting the dynamic nature of SLA. Additionally, they exhibited decreasing lexical sophistication in both genres despite improvements in other complexity measures, indicating a “complexity trade-off” between linguistic subsystems. These findings contribute empirical evidence to the cross-linguistic comparisons in SLA research and suggest that curricula should incorporate diverse genres to develop multifaceted linguistic competence, with pedagogical approaches tailored to genre-specific complexity patterns and developmental trajectories.
Journal Article
The Linguistic Development of Students of English as a Second Language in Two Written Genres
This study examined narrative and argumentative essays written over the course of a 4-month semester by 37 students of English as a second language (ESL). The essays were analyzed for development over time and for genre differences. The goal of the study was to conceptually replicate previous studies on genre differences (e.g., Lu, 2011) and on short-term linguistic development in the areas of syntactic complexity, accuracy, lexical complexity, and fluency (e.g., Connor-Linton & Polio, 2014). In addition, the authors wanted to investigate whether native speakers exhibited similar genre differences in order to determine if die ESL students' genre variations were developmental or related to functional differences between the genres. The results indicate strong genre differences in the area of linguistic complexity. There were limited changes over time on most measures and a notable lack of development in the area of accuracy. Parallel data from native speakers show genre variation on some but not as many of the measures. Although this study was motivated by research design concerns, it also has implications for theory (e.g., the source of genre differences) and pedagogy.
Journal Article
Measuring Accounting Reporting Complexity with XBRL
We propose a new measure of accounting reporting complexity (ARC) based on the count of accounting items (XBRL tags) disclosed in 10-K filings. The preparation and disclosure of more accounting items is complicated because it requires greater knowledge of authoritative accounting standards. This aspect of complexity can increase the likelihood of mistakes, incorrect application of GAAP, and can ultimately lead to less credible financial reports. Consistently, we find that ARC is associated with a greater likelihood of misstatements and material weakness disclosures, longer audit delay, and higher audit fees. In comparison to commonly used measures of operating and linguistic complexity, the associations between ARC and these outcomes are more consistent, exhibit greater explanatory power, and have stronger economic significance. These and additional validation and robustness tests suggest that ARC more completely reflects accounting complexity. In addition, ARC exhibits several advantageous properties, including across- and within-firm variation, availability for the universe of SEC filers, and a direct connection to accounting, inherent in its derivation from detailed accounting disclosures. Finally, because it relies on a comprehensive set of detailed accounting data, ARC broadly captures accounting complexity, while, at the same time, it can be disaggregated into account-specific measures of complexity.
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