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Phospholipid conjugates consist of functionally different classes of molecules: phospholipid drug conjugates, fluorescent lipid probes and lipid molecular motors. All these conjugates are molecules that bear a functional group– a drug, a fluorophore or a molecular motor attached to the phospholipid. The conjugation is needed to incorporate a functional group into the lipid bilayer of liposome or lipid nanoparticle and thus, either modulate the effect of the drug or bring a new function to the liposome. Here, using NMR spectroscopy and quantum chemistry calculations, we show that phospholipid conjugates can form intramolecular π-cation complexes between quaternary ammonium group of the phosphatidylcholine and aromatic ring of the conjugated moiety. We also report on how to avoid the π-cation complex formation. If the linker between the aromatic moiety and the choline group is long enough the formation of π-cation complex is not observed.

Rotary molecular machines, activated by ultraviolet light, are able to perturb and drill into cell membranes in a controllable manner, and more efficiently than those exhibiting flip-flopping or random motion. Molecular machine 'drills' through cell membranes Victor García-López et al . report that ultraviolet-light-activated rotary molecular machines are able to perturb and drill into cell membranes in vitro . Molecules without the drilling action, which either flip-flopped in a washing-machine-like motion or demonstrated random rotation, were inefficient at traversing the cell membrane compared to those with unidirectional motion. Membrane perturbation was rapidly followed by membrane blebbing, and necrosis. Changing the structure of the motors sterically slowed the transport across the membrane, while the addition of peptides to the molecular motors allowed targeting of the molecules to specific cells. This research offers new opportunities for molecular motors in bioengineering applications. Beyond the more common chemical delivery strategies, several physical techniques are used to open the lipid bilayers of cellular membranes 1 . These include using electric 2 and magnetic 3 fields, temperature 4 , ultrasound 5 or light 6 to introduce compounds into cells, to release molecular species from cells or to selectively induce programmed cell death (apoptosis) or uncontrolled cell death (necrosis). More recently, molecular motors and switches that can change their conformation in a controlled manner in response to external stimuli have been used to produce mechanical actions on tissue for biomedical applications 7 , 8 , 9 . Here we show that molecular machines can drill through cellular bilayers using their molecular-scale actuation, specifically nanomechanical action. Upon physical adsorption of the molecular motors onto lipid bilayers and subsequent activation of the motors using ultraviolet light, holes are drilled in the cell membranes. We designed molecular motors and complementary experimental protocols that use nanomechanical action to induce the diffusion of chemical species out of synthetic vesicles, to enhance the diffusion of traceable molecular machines into and within live cells, to induce necrosis and to introduce chemical species into live cells. We also show that, by using molecular machines that bear short peptide addends, nanomechanical action can selectively target specific cell-surface recognition sites. Beyond the in vitro applications demonstrated here, we expect that molecular machines could also be used in vivo , especially as their design progresses to allow two-photon, near-infrared and radio-frequency activation 10 .

Ferroptosis is an iron-dependent cell death with the accumulation of lipid peroxidation and dysfunction of antioxidant systems. As the critical regulator, glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) has been demonstrated to be down-regulated in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). However, the mechanism of ferroptosis in ALS remains unclear. In this research, bioinformatics analysis revealed a high correlation between ALS, ferroptosis, and Speedy/RINGO cell cycle regulator family member A (SPY1). Lipid peroxidation of ferroptosis in hSOD1G93A cells and mice was generated by TFR1-imported excess free iron, decreased GSH, mitochondrial membrane dysfunction, upregulated ALOX15, and inactivation of GCH1, GPX4. SPY1 is a “cyclin-like” protein that has been proved to enhance the viability of hSOD1G93A cells by inhibiting DNA damage. In our study, the decreased expression of SPY1 in ALS was resulted from unprecedented ubiquitination degradation mediated by MDM2 (a nuclear-localized E3 ubiquitin ligase). Further, SPY1 was identified as a novel ferroptosis suppressor via alleviating lipid peroxidation produced by dysregulated GCH1/BH4 axis (a resistance axis of ferroptosis) and transferrin receptor protein 1 (TFR1)-induced iron. Additionally, neuron-specific overexpression of SPY1 significantly delayed the occurrence and prolonged the survival in ALS transgenic mice through the above two pathways. These results suggest that SPY1 is a novel target for both ferroptosis and ALS.

Biological pores have been used to study the transport of DNA and other molecules, but most pores have channels that allow only the movement of small molecules and single-stranded DNA and RNA. The bacteriophage phi29 DNA-packaging motor, which allows double-stranded DNA to enter the virus during maturation and exit during an infection, contains a connector protein with a channel that is between 3.6 and 6 nm wide. Here we show that a modified version of this connector protein, when reconstituted into liposomes and inserted into planar lipid bilayers, allows the translocation of double-stranded DNA. The measured conductance of a single connector channel was 4.8 nS in 1 M KCl. This engineered and membrane-adapted phage connector is expected to have applications in microelectromechanical sensing, microreactors, gene delivery, drug loading and DNA sequencing. Proteins isolated from a specific type of virus have channels that are wide enough to allow double-stranded DNA to pass through, offering a new conductive biological pore for various applications including DNA sequencing.

Flexible domains in a well-oiled machineMotors convert one form of energy into another. For biological motors, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) serves as chemical energy and its hydrolysis is coupled to conformational changes that exert mechanical force. ATP synthases reverse this process in a multistep process: first converting an electrochemical gradient to rotational kinetic energy, and then coupling rotation to formation of high-energy phosphodiester bonds. Murphy et al. investigated these energy changes in the dimeric mitochondrial F1-Fo ATP synthase from Polytomella sp., a unicellular alga. They solved high-resolution cryo–electron microscopy structures of the ATP synthase complex, extracting 13 rotational substates. This collection of structures revealed that the rotation of the Fo ring and central stalk is coupled with partial rotations of the F1 head. This flexibility may enable the head to better couple continuous rotation with discrete ATP synthesis events.Science, this issue p. eaaw9128INTRODUCTIONMitochondrial F1-Fo adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthases are macromolecular turbines that couple proton translocation across a membrane to ATP synthesis. Protons are translocated through the Fo subcomplex in the lipid bilayer by a rotor composed of a defined number of c subunits, each with a proton-binding site, to generate ring rotation. A central stalk is firmly anchored to the c ring and conveys rotary motion to the catalytic F1 subcomplex in the mitochondrial matrix, where ATP is produced by rotary catalysis. A peripheral stalk connects the two subcomplexes to prevent idle rotation of F1 with Fo.RATIONALEAlthough ATP synthase complexes have been investigated for more than 50 years, several key questions remain. An enduring question is how the stoichiometrically mismatched c ring in Fo (composed of 8 to 17 c subunits) and the three-fold symmetric F1 head are efficiently coupled. Another open question is the exact pathway taken by protons through the membrane, which has been the least well characterized part of the mechanism.RESULTSWe used single-particle cryo–electron microscopy (cryo-EM) to characterize the structure and dynamics of a complete and active dimeric mitochondrial ATP synthase from the chlorophyll-less unicellular alga Polytomella sp. Together with data obtained by genome sequencing and mass spectrometry, our 2.7- to 2.8-Å resolution map allowed us to build a full atomic model of the 1.6-MDa complex. The model includes the newly identified subunit ASA10, which interlinks the two ATP synthase monomers on the lumenal side of the membrane. Separation of 13 independent rotary states provides a detailed molecular description of the movements that accompany c-ring rotation. We find that the F1 head rotates together with the central stalk and c ring through approximately 30°, or one c subunit, at the beginning of each 120° step. Flexible coupling of the F1 head to the Fo motor is mediated primarily by a hinge at the interdomain link of the oligomycin sensitivity–conferring protein (OSCP) subunit that joins the F1 head to the peripheral stalk. The extended two-helix bundle of the central stalk γ subunit interacts with the catch-loop region of one β subunit of the F1 head. The resulting mechanism of flexible coupling is likely to be conserved in other F1-Fo ATP synthases. Our results provide much-needed context to a wealth of published data indicating that OSCP is a hub of metabolic control in the cell.Our high-resolution map of the proton-translocating Fo complex has revealed a strong density, very likely a metal ion, ligated by two histidine residues. Recent cryo-EM studies of yeast and spinach chloroplast ATP synthase contain unannotated densities at the same position. Mutational experiments in Escherichia coli have shown that an equivalent residue is essential to proton translocation. By three-dimensional classification, we separated two different rotational positions of the c ring and showed that the coordination environment of the metal ion changes with c-ring position. This evidence points toward a role for the metal ion in synchronizing c-ring protonation with its rotation.CONCLUSIONIn ATP synthases, the F1 catalytic head can accompany the rotor through a rotation of ~30° at the beginning of each ~120° step. This movement allows flexible coupling of F1 and Fo. The interdomain hinge of OSCP facilitates flexible coupling and makes this subunit an apposite point for the regulation of ATP synthesis.F1Fo–adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthases make the energy of the proton-motive force available for energy-consuming processes in the cell. We determined the single-particle cryo–electron microscopy structure of active dimeric ATP synthase from mitochondria of Polytomella sp. at a resolution of 2.7 to 2.8 angstroms. Separation of 13 well-defined rotary substates by three-dimensional classification provides a detailed picture of the molecular motions that accompany c-ring rotation and result in ATP synthesis. Crucially, the F1 head rotates along with the central stalk and c-ring rotor for the first ~30° of each 120° primary rotary step to facilitate flexible coupling of the stoichiometrically mismatched F1 and Fo subcomplexes. Flexibility is mediated primarily by the interdomain hinge of the conserved OSCP subunit. A conserved metal ion in the proton access channel may synchronize c-ring protonation with rotation.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is an age-dependent neurodegenerative disease affecting motor neurons in the spinal cord and brainstem whose etiopathogenesis remains unclear. Recent studies have linked major neurodegenerative diseases with altered function of multimolecular lipid-protein complexes named lipid rafts. In the present study, we have isolated lipid rafts from the anterior horn of the spinal cords of controls and ALS individuals and analysed their lipid composition. We found that ALS affects levels of different fatty acids, lipid classes and related ratios and indexes. The most significant changes affected the contents of n-9/n-7 monounsaturated fatty acids and arachidonic acid, the main n-6 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (LCPUFA), which were higher in ALS lipid rafts. Paralleling these findings, ALS lipid rafts lower saturates-to-unsaturates ratio compared to controls. Further, levels of cholesteryl ester (SE) and anionic-to-zwitterionic phospholipids ratio were augmented in ALS lipid rafts, while sulfatide contents were reduced. Further, regression analyses revealed augmented SE esterification to (mono)unsaturated fatty acids in ALS, but to saturates in controls. Overall, these changes indicate that lipid rafts from ALS spinal cord undergo destabilization of the lipid structure, which might impact their biophysical properties, likely leading to more fluid membranes. Indeed, estimations of membrane microviscosity confirmed less viscous membranes in ALS, as well as more mobile yet smaller lipid rafts compared to surrounding membranes. Overall, these results demonstrate that the changes in ALS lipid rafts are unrelated to oxidative stress, but to anomalies in lipid metabolism and/or lipid raft membrane biogenesis in motor neurons.Key messagesThe lipid matrix of multimolecular membrane complexes named lipid rafts are altered in human spinal cord in sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).Lipid rafts from ALS spinal cord contain higher levels of n-6 LCPUFA (but not n-3 LCPUFA), n-7/n-9 monounsaturates and lower saturates-to-unsaturates ratio.ALS lipid rafts display increased contents of cholesteryl esters, anomalous anionic-to-zwitterionic phospholipids and phospholipid remodelling and reduced sulphated and total sphingolipid levels, compared to control lipid rafts.Destabilization of the lipid structure of lipid raft affects their biophysical properties and leads to more fluid, less viscous membrane microdomains.The changes in ALS lipid rafts are unlikely related to increased oxidative stress, but to anomalies in lipid metabolism and/or raft membrane biogenesis in motor neurons.

Force-generating motor proteins usually assemble on lipid membranes inside cells. We argue that it is important to consider this membrane as a dynamic entity that responds to cellular and metabolic demands in a manner that harnesses the force from motors to control pathogen degradation, cancer metastasis, lipid homeostasis and possibly other functions relevant to health and physiology.Roop Mallik argues for the importance of considering the impact that membrane lipids have on motors, and the dynamics of the membrane–motor interface, in studies of cytoskeletal motors.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is caused by selective degeneration of motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord; however, the primary cell death pathway(s) mediating motor neuron demise remain elusive. We recently established that necroptosis, an inflammatory form of regulated cell death, was dispensable for motor neuron death in a mouse model of ALS, implicating other forms of cell death. Here, we confirm these findings in ALS patients, showing a lack of expression of key necroptotic effector proteins in spinal cords. Rather, we uncover evidence for ferroptosis, a recently discovered iron-dependent form of regulated cell death, in ALS. Depletion of glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4), an anti-oxidant enzyme and central repressor of ferroptosis, occurred in post-mortem spinal cords of both sporadic and familial ALS patients. GPX4 depletion was also an early and universal feature of spinal cords and brains of transgenic mutant superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1G93A), TDP-43 and C9orf72 mouse models of ALS. GPX4 depletion and ferroptosis were linked to impaired NRF2 signalling and dysregulation of glutathione synthesis and iron-binding proteins. Novel BAC transgenic mice overexpressing human GPX4 exhibited high GPX4 expression localised to spinal motor neurons. Human GPX4 overexpression in SOD1G93A mice significantly delayed disease onset, improved locomotor function and prolonged lifespan, which was attributed to attenuated lipid peroxidation and motor neuron preservation. Our study discovers a new role for ferroptosis in mediating motor neuron death in ALS, supporting the use of anti-ferroptotic therapeutic strategies, such as GPX4 pathway induction and upregulation, for ALS treatment.

F 1 F o ATP synthase functions as a biological rotary generator that makes a major contribution to cellular energy production. It comprises two molecular motors coupled together by a central and a peripheral stalk. Proton flow through the F o motor generates rotation of the central stalk, inducing conformational changes in the F 1 motor that catalyzes ATP production. Here we present nine cryo-EM structures of E. coli ATP synthase to 3.1–3.4 Å resolution, in four discrete rotational sub-states, which provide a comprehensive structural model for this widely studied bacterial molecular machine. We observe torsional flexing of the entire complex and a rotational sub-step of F o associated with long-range conformational changes that indicates how this flexibility accommodates the mismatch between the 3- and 10-fold symmetries of the F 1 and F o motors. We also identify density likely corresponding to lipid molecules that may contribute to the rotor/stator interaction within the F o motor. F 1 F o ATP synthase consists of two coupled rotary molecular motors: the soluble ATPase F 1 and the transmembrane F o . Here, the authors present cryo-EM structures of E. coli ATP synthase in four discrete rotational sub-states at 3.1-3.4 Å resolution and observe a rotary sub-step of the F o motor cring that reveals the mechanism of elastic coupling between the two rotary motors, which is essential for effective ATP synthesis.

Glycinergic synapses play a central role in motor control and pain processing in the central nervous system. Glycine receptors (GlyRs) are key players in mediating fast inhibitory neurotransmission at these synapses. While previous high-resolution structures have provided insights into the molecular architecture of GlyR, several mechanistic questions pertaining to channel function are still unanswered. Here, we present Cryo-EM structures of the full-length GlyR protein complex reconstituted into lipid nanodiscs that are captured in the unliganded (closed), glycine-bound (open and desensitized), and allosteric modulator-bound conformations. A comparison of these states reveals global conformational changes underlying GlyR channel gating and modulation. The functional state assignments were validated by molecular dynamics simulations, and the observed permeation events are in agreement with the anion selectivity and conductance of GlyR. These studies provide the structural basis for gating, ion selectivity, and single-channel conductance properties of GlyR in a lipid environment. Glycinergic synapses play a central role in motor control and pain processing in the central nervous system. Here, authors present cryo-EM structures of the full-length glycine receptors (GlyRs) reconstituted into lipid nanodiscs in the unliganded, glycine-bound and allosteric modulator-bound conformations and reveal global conformational changes underlying GlyR channel gating and modulation.