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Intracellular membrane fusion requires R-SNAREs and Q-SNAREs to assemble into a four-helical parallel coiled-coil, with their hydrophobic anchors spanning the two apposed membranes. Based on the fusion properties of chemically defined SNARE- proteoliposomes, it has been proposed that the assembly of this helical bundle transduces force through the entire bilayer via the transmembrane SNARE anchor domains to drive fusion. However, an R-SNARE, Nyv1p, with a genetically engineered lipid anchor that spans half of the bilayer suffices for the fusion of isolated vacuoles, although this organelle has other R-SNAREs. To demonstrate unequivocally the fusion activity of lipid-anchored Nyv1p, we reconstituted proteoliposomes with purified lipid-anchored Nyv1p as the only protein. When these proteoliposomes were incubated with those bearing cognate Q-SNAREs, there was trans-SNARE complex assembly but, in accord with prior studies of the neuronal SNAREs, little lipid mixing. However, the addition of physiological fusion accessory proteins (HOPS, Sec17p, and Sec18p) allows lipid-anchored Nyv1p to support fusion, suggesting that trans-SNARE complex function is not limited to force transduction across the bilayers through the transmembrane domains.

The outer membrane (OM) of Gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli contains lipoproteins and integral β-barrel proteins (outer-membrane proteins, OMPs) assembled into an asymmetrical lipid bilayer. Insertion of β-barrel proteins into the OM is mediated by a protein complex that contains the OMP BamA and four associated lipoproteins (BamBCDE). The mechanism by which the Bam complex catalyzes the assembly of OMPs is not known. We report here the isolation and characterization of a temperature-sensitive lethal mutation, bamAE373K, which alters the fifth polypeptide transport-associated domain and disrupts the interaction between the BamAB and BamCDE subcomplexes. Suppressor mutations that map to codon 197 in bamD restore Bam complex function to wild-type levels. However, these suppressors do not restore the interaction between BamA and BamD; rather, they bypass the requirement for stable holocomplex formation by activating BamD. These results imply that BamA and BamD interact directly with OMP substrates.

The phototropin 1 (phot1) blue light receptor mediates a number of adaptive responses, including phototropism, that generally serve to optimize photosynthetic capacity. Phot1 is a plasma membrane‐associated protein, but upon irradiation, a fraction is internalized into the cytoplasm. Although this phenomenon has been reported for more than a decade, its biological significance remains elusive. Here, we use a genetic approach to revisit the prevalent hypotheses regarding the functional importance of receptor internalization. Transgenic plants expressing lipidated versions of phot1 that are permanently anchored to the plasma membrane were used to analyse the effect of internalization on receptor turnover, phototropism and other phot1‐mediated responses. Myristoylation and farnesylation effectively prevented phot1 internalization. Both modified photoreceptors were found to be fully functional in Arabidopsis, rescuing phototropism and all other phot1‐mediated responses tested. Light‐mediated phot1 turnover occurred as in the native receptor. Furthermore, our work does not provide any evidence of a role of phot1 internalization in the attenuation of receptor signalling during phototropism. Our results demonstrate that phot1 signalling is initiated at the plasma membrane. They furthermore indicate that release of phot1 into the cytosol is not linked to receptor turnover or desensitization.

Protein–metabolite networks are central to biological systems, but are incompletely understood. Here, we report a screen to catalog protein–lipid interactions in yeast. We used arrays of 56 metabolites to measure lipid‐binding fingerprints of 172 proteins, including 91 with predicted lipid‐binding domains. We identified 530 protein–lipid associations, the majority of which are novel. To show the data set's biological value, we studied further several novel interactions with sphingolipids, a class of conserved bioactive lipids with an elusive mode of action. Integration of live‐cell imaging suggests new cellular targets for these molecules, including several with pleckstrin homology (PH) domains. Validated interactions with Slm1, a regulator of actin polarization, show that PH domains can have unexpected lipid‐binding specificities and can act as coincidence sensors for both phosphatidylinositol phosphates and phosphorylated sphingolipids. Synopsis Deciphering the molecular mechanisms behind cellular processes requires the systematic charting of the multitude of interactions between all cellular components. While protein–protein and protein–DNA networks have been the subject of many systematic surveys, other critically important cellular components, such as lipids, have to date rarely been studied in large‐scale interaction screens. Growing numbers of lipids are known to operate as signaling molecules. The importance of protein–lipid interactions is evident from the variety of protein domains that have evolved to bind particular lipids (Lemmon, 2008 #392) and from the large list of disorders, such as cancer and bipolar disorder, arising from altered protein–lipid interactions. The current understanding of protein–lipid recognition comes from the study of a limited number of lipids, principally PtdInsPs (Zhu et al , 2001 #16), and lipid‐binding domains (LBDs) in isolation (Dowler et al , 2000 #81; Yu and Lemmon, 2001 #396; Yu et al , 2004 #31). For other signaling lipids, such as sphingolipids, intracellular targets and molecular mechanisms are only partially understood (Hannun and Obeid, 2008 #397). The importance of lipids in biological processes and their under‐representation in current biological networks suggest the need for systematic, unbiased biochemical screens. To systematically study protein–lipid interactions, we developed miniaturized arrays that contained sets of 56 lipids covering the main lipid classes in yeast. We used the arrays to determine the binding profiles of 172 soluble proteins. The selection included proteins that contained one or several predicted LBD that were lipid regulated or enzymes involved in lipid metabolism (Figure 1 ). We obtained 530 protein–lipid interactions (accuracy and coverage: 61 and 60%, respectively). More than half were supported by additional experimental evidences obtained from a large validation effort using a variety of biochemical and cell biology approaches, and the integration of a data set of genetic interactions (Figure 1 ). As a substantial fraction (45%) of the analyzed proteins were conserved in humans, the protein–lipid data set will have functional implications for higher eukaryotes and thus for human biology. Overall, 68% of all interactions were novel or unexpected from either protein sequences or known LBDs specificities. We discovered cryptic LBDs that were previously undetected in Ecm25 (a RhoGAP) and Ira2 (a RasGAP). We also identified a set of proteins that bound sphingolipids, a class of bioactive lipids that play important signaling functions in yeast and higher eukaryotes. The exact mode of action for these lipids remains elusive and the data set points to series of new cellular targets. We identified 63 proteins, involved in endocytosis, cell polarity and lipid metabolism that interacted with sphingoid long‐chain bases (LCBs), ceramides or phosphorylated LCBs (Figure 5 ). Despite the importance of sphingolipids in signaling processes, only a few domains, such as START or Saposins, have been reported to specifically bind these lipids in higher eukaryotes, and none of them have been found in yeast. Interestingly, almost 60% of proteins binding to phosphorylated LCBs in our assay also contained a pleckstrin homology (PH) domain and bound PtdInsPs (Figure 5 ). This suggests some PH domains might have unanticipated ligands and also have a function in sphingolipid recognition. We showed, using a variety of biochemical and cell‐based assays, that the PH domain of Slm1, a component of the TORC2 signaling pathway (Fadri et al , 2005 #429), can bind PtdIns(4,5)P 2 and sphingolipid cooperatively. The structure of Slm1‐PH, which we solved by X‐ray crystallography at 2 Å resolution, suggests the presence of two positively charged binding pockets for anionic lipids. These results indicate that the PH domain of Slm1 might work as a coincidence sensor to integrate both PtdInsP and sphingolipid signaling pathways. This reinforces the emerging notion that cooperative mechanisms have important functions in PH domains functioning (Maffucci and Falasca, 2001 #528). These mechanisms initially described between PtdInsPs and proteins can now be extended to new lipid classes, illustrating the benefit of unbiased and systematic analyses. This work shows the feasibility and benefits of large‐scale analyses combining biochemical arrays and live‐cell imaging for charting protein–lipid interactions. Accurate representations of biological processes require systematic charting of the physical and functional links between all cellular components. There is a clear need to expand molecular interaction space from proteome‐ to metabolome‐wide efforts and of systematic classifications of bioactive molecules based on their binding profiles. The data provided here represents an excellent resource to enhance the understanding of lipids function in eukaryotic systems. Lipids are important cellular metabolites, with a wide range of structural and functional diversity. Many operate as signaling molecules. Lipids though have rarely been studied in large‐scale interaction screen; they are poorly represented in current biological networks. Here, we describe the use of miniaturized lipid–arrays for the large‐scale study of protein–lipid interactions. In yeast, we show general feasibility with a systematic screen implying 172 proteins. We report 530 protein–lipid associations, the majority is novel and several were validated using other techniques. The screen uncovers numerous insights into lipid function in yeast and equivalent systems in humans. It revealed (i) previously undetected cryptic lipid‐binding domains, (ii) series of new cellular targets for sphingolipids and (iii) new ligands for some PH domains that can cooperatively bind additional lipids and work as coincidence sensor to integrate both phosphatidylinositol phosphates and sphingolipid signaling pathways. The significant number of biological insights uncovered shows that even major classes of metabolites have been insufficiently studied. This illustrates the general relevance of such systematic screens and calls for further system‐wide analyses.

Dendrites, branched structures extending from neuronal cell soma, are specialized for processing information from other neurons. The morphogenesis of dendritic structures is spatiotemporally regulated by well-orchestrated signaling cascades. Dysregulation of these processes impacts the wiring of neuronal circuit and efficacy of neurotransmission, which contribute to the pathogeneses of neurological disorders. While Cdk5 (cyclin-dependent kinase 5) plays a critical role in neuronal dendritic development, its underlying molecular control is not fully understood. In this study, we show that p39, one of the two neuronal Cdk5 activators, is a key regulator of dendritic morphogenesis. Pyramidal neurons deficient in p39 exhibit aberrant dendritic morphology characterized by shorter length and reduced arborization, which is comparable to dendrites in Cdk5-deficient neurons. RNA sequencing analysis shows that the adaptor protein, WDFY1 (WD repeat and FYVE domain-containing 1), acts downstream of Cdk5/p39 to regulate dendritic morphogenesis. While WDFY1 is elevated in p39-deficient neurons, suppressing its expression rescues the impaired dendritic arborization. Further phosphoproteomic analysis suggests that Cdk5/p39 mediates dendritic morphogenesis by modulating various downstream signaling pathways, including PI3K/Akt-, cAMP-, or small GTPase-mediated signaling transduction pathways, thereby regulating cytoskeletal organization, protein synthesis, and protein trafficking.

Background The intracellular bacterial pathogen Legionella pneumophila proliferates in human alveolar macrophages, resulting in a severe pneumonia termed Legionnaires’ disease. Throughout the course of infection, L. pneumophila remains enclosed in a specialized membrane compartment that evades fusion with lysosomes. The pathogen delivers over 300 effector proteins into the host cell, altering host pathways in a manner that sets the stage for efficient pathogen replication. The L. pneumophila effector protein AnkX targets host Rab GTPases and functions in preventing fusion of the Legionella -containing vacuole with lysosomes. However, the current understanding of AnkX’s interaction with host proteins and the means through which it exerts its cellular function is limited. Results Here, we investigated the protein interaction network of AnkX by using the nucleic acid programmable protein array (NAPPA), a high-density platform comprising 10,000 unique human ORFs. This approach facilitated the discovery of PLEKHN1 as a novel interaction partner of AnkX. We confirmed this interaction through multiple independent in vitro pull-down, co-immunoprecipitation, and cell-based assays. Structured illumination microscopy revealed that endogenous PLEKHN1 is found in the nucleus and on vesicular compartments, whereas ectopically produced AnkX co-localized with lipid rafts at the plasma membrane. In mammalian cells, HaloTag-AnkX co-localized with endogenous PLEKHN1 on vesicular compartments. A central fragment of AnkX (amino acids 491–809), containing eight ankyrin repeats, extensively co-localized with endogenous PLEKHN1, indicating that this region may harbor a new function. Further, we found that PLEKHN1 associated with multiple proteins involved in the inflammatory response. Conclusions Altogether, our study provides evidence that in addition to Rab GTPases, the L. pneumophila effector AnkX targets nuclear host proteins and suggests that AnkX may have novel functions related to manipulating the inflammatory response.

The coiled-coil forming peptides ‘ K ’ enriched in lysine and ‘ E ’ enriched in glutamic acid have been used as a minimal SNARE mimetic system for membrane fusion. Here we describe atomistic molecular dynamics simulations to characterize the interactions of these peptides with lipid bilayers for two different compositions. For neutral phosphatidylcholine (PC)/phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) bilayers the peptides experience a strong repulsive barrier against adsorption, also observed in potential of mean force (PMF) profiles calculated with umbrella sampling. For peptide K , a minimum of −12 k B T in the PMF provides an upper bound for the binding free energy whereas no stable membrane bound state could be observed for peptide E . In contrast, the electrostatic interactions with negatively charged phosphatidylglycerol (PG) lipids lead to fast adsorption of both peptides at the head-water interface. Experimental data using fluorescently labeled peptides confirm the stronger binding to PG containing bilayers. Lipid anchors have little effect on the peptide-bilayer interactions or peptide structure, when the peptide also binds to the bilayer in the absence of a lipid anchor. For peptide E , which does not bind to the PC bilayer without a lipid anchor, the presence of such an anchor strengthens the electrostatic interactions between the charged side chains and the zwitterionic head-groups and leads to a stabilization of the peptide’s helical fold by the membrane.

The absence of the transcriptional repressor RE-1 Silencing Transcription Factor (REST) in insulin-secreting beta cells is a major cue for the specific expression of a large number of genes. These REST target genes were largely ascribed to a function of neurotransmission in a neuronal context, whereas their role in pancreatic beta cells has been poorly explored. To identify their functional significance, we have generated transgenic mice expressing REST in beta cells (RIP-REST mice), and previously discovered that REST target genes are essential to insulin exocytosis. Herein we characterized a novel line of RIP-REST mice featuring diabetes. In diabetic RIP-REST mice, high levels of REST were associated with postnatal beta cell apoptosis, which resulted in gradual beta cell loss and sustained hyperglycemia in adults. Moreover, adenoviral REST transduction in INS-1E cells led to increased cell death under control conditions, and sensitized cells to death induced by cytokines. Screening for REST target genes identified several anti-apoptotic genes bearing the binding motif RE-1 that were downregulated upon REST expression in INS-1E cells, including Gjd2, Mapk8ip1, Irs2, Ptprn, and Cdk5r2. Decreased levels of Cdk5r2 in beta cells of RIP-REST mice further confirmed that it is controlled by REST, in vivo. Using siRNA-mediated knock-down in INS-1E cells, we showed that Cdk5r2 protects beta cells against cytokines and palmitate-induced apoptosis. Together, these data document that a set of REST target genes, including Cdk5r2, is important for beta cell survival.

Glc1Man9GlcNAc2-PP-dolichyl α1,3-glucosyltransferase (ALG8). [...]far, the only patient has been described with a relatively mild clinical picture. According to topology predictions, T47 is located in a long peptide motif in the first luminal loop of ALG8, a region which shows conservation among the dolP-Man and dolP-Glc dependent mannosyl- and glucosyltransferases. 26 Position 275 (glycine) is located in the cytoplasmic loop between the transmembrane domains 6 and 7 and is also conserved between ALG6 and ALG8 of different species but not in other mannosyl- or glucosyltransferases. 26 Despite these differences in position and conservation, no significant difference has been observed in the effect of the mutations on the ALG8 function.

Mannosylphospho dolichol synthase (DPMS) is a critical enzyme in the biosynthesis of lipid-linked oligosaccharide (LLO; Glc₃Man₉GlcNAc₂-PP-Dol), a pre-requisite for asparagine-linked (N-linked) protein glycosylation. We have shown earlier that DPMS is important for angiogenesis, i.e., endothelial cell proliferation. This is true when cAMP is used for intracellular signaling. During cAMP signaling, DPMS is activated and ER stress is reduced. To understand the activation of DPMS at the molecular level we have isolated a cDNA clone for the DPMS gene (bDPMS) from the capillary endothelial cells of bovine adrenal medulla. DNA sequencing and the deduced amino acid sequence have established that bDPMS has a motif to be phosphorylated by cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA). Based on the sequence information Serine 165 has been found to be the phosphorylation target in bDPMS. Hydropathy Index when plotted against amino acid number indicates the presence of a hydrophobic region around the amino acid residues 120-160, supporting that bDPMS has one membrane spanning region. The recombinant bDPMS has now been purified as His-tag protein with an apparent molecular weight of M r 33 kDa. Additionally, we show here that overexpression of DPMS is indeed angiogenic. The capillary endothelial cells proliferate at a higher rate carrying the DPMS overexpression plasmid over the parental cells or the vector.