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By the early 21st century, most high-income countries have put into effect a host of generous and virtually gender-neutral parental leave policies and family benefits, with the multiple goals of gender equity, higher fertility, and child development. What have been the effects? Proponents typically emphasize the contribution of family policies to the goals of gender equity and child development, enabling women to combine careers and motherhood, and altering social norms regarding gender roles. Opponents often warn that family policies may become a long-term hindrance to women's careers because of the loss of work experience and the higher costs to employers that hire women of childbearing age. We draw lessons from existing work and our own analysis on the effects of parental leave and other interventions aimed at aiding families. We present country- and micro-level evidence on the effects of family policy on gender outcomes, focusing on female employment, gender gaps in earnings, and fertility. Most estimates range from negligible to a small positive impact. But the verdict is far more positive for the beneficial impact of spending on early education and child care.

Objectives The United States is one of only three countries worldwide with no national policy guaranteeing paid leave to employed women who give birth. While maternity leave has been linked to improved maternal and child outcomes in international contexts, up-to-date research evidence in the U.S. context is needed to inform current policy debates on paid family leave. Methods Using data from Listening to Mothers III, a national survey of women ages 18–45 who gave birth in 2011–2012, we conducted multivariate logistic regression to predict the likelihood of outcomes related to infant health, maternal physical and mental health, and maternal health behaviors by the use and duration of paid maternity leave. Results Use of paid and unpaid leave varied significantly by race/ethnicity and household income. Women who took paid maternity leave experienced a 47% decrease in the odds of re-hospitalizing their infants (95% CI 0.3, 1.0) and a 51% decrease in the odds of being re-hospitalized themselves (95% CI 0.3, 0.9) at 21 months postpartum, compared to women taking unpaid or no leave. They also had 1.8 times the odds of doing well with exercise (95% CI 1.1, 3.0) and stress management (95% CI 1.1, 2.8), compared to women taking only unpaid leave. Conclusions for Practice Paid maternity leave significantly predicts lower odds of maternal and infant re-hospitalization and higher odds of doing well with exercise and stress management. Policies aimed at expanding access to paid maternity and family leave may contribute toward reducing socio-demographic disparities in paid leave use and its associated health benefits.

This article analyzes the impact of five major expansions in maternity leave coverage in Germany on mothers’ labor market outcomes after childbirth. To identify the causal impact of the reforms, we use a difference-in-difference design that compares labor market outcomes of mothers who give birth shortly before and shortly after a change in maternity leave legislation in years of policy changes and years when no changes have taken place. Each expansion in leave coverage reduced mothers’ postbirth employment rates in the short run. The longer-run effects of the expansions on mothers’ postbirth labor market outcomes are, however, small.

This study examines how paid maternity leave (ML) impacted fertility and mothers’ labor force participation in Romania. The ML gives mothers the right to paid leave until the child turns one year old, and it offers 65% of monthly income before birth. I examine the effects of this policy change using a regression discontinuity design and census data. I show that mothers who are eligible for ML are 2.5 percentage-points more likely to have an additional child than those ineligible. The effect is persistent for seven years after the policy was implemented. I find no significant results regarding the mother’s labor force participation. These results have important implications regarding the shrinking working-age population and the ability to fund benefits programs.

We study a change in maternity leave entitlements in Norway. Mothers giving birth before July 1, 1977, were eligible for 12 weeks of unpaid leave, while those giving birth after that date were entitled to 4 months of paid leave and 12 months of unpaid leave. The increased time spent with the child led to a 2 percentage point decline in high school dropout rates and a 5 percent increase in wages at age 30. These effects were larger for the children of mothers who, in the absence of the reform, would have taken very low levels of unpaid leave.

The personal health and professional impact of physician pregnancy requires further study. We performed a comprehensive scoping review of physician pregnancy to synthesize and assess the evidence to aid decision-making for relevant stakeholders. A search of 7 databases resulted in 3733 citations. 407 manuscripts were included and scored for evidence level. Data were extracted into themes using template analysis. Physician pregnancy impacted colleagues through perceived increased workload and resulted in persistent stigmatization and discrimination despite work productivity and academic metrics being independent of pregnancy events. Maternity leave policies were inconsistent and largely unsatisfactory. Women physicians incurred occupational hazard risk and had high rates of childbearing delay, abortion, and fertility treatment; obstetric and fetal complication rates compared to controls are conflicting. Comprehensive literature review found that physician pregnancy impacts colleagues, elicits negative perceptions of productivity, and is inadequately addressed by current parental leave policies. Data are poor and insufficient to definitively determine the impact of physician pregnancy on maternal and fetal health. Prospective risk-matched observational studies of physician pregnancy should be pursued. •Our comprehensive scoping review of physician pregnancy identified four major themes prevalent in the literature: the impact of pregnancy on the physician and her colleagues, the work productivity of pregnant physicians, maternity leave policies, and maternal-fetal health outcomes.•Negative perceptions of physician pregnancy persisted despite academic metrics being independent of pregnancy events.•Flexible scheduling was feasible but often unavailable. Maternity leave policies were inconsistent and largely unsatisfactory.•Pregnant physicians are exposed to potential occupational hazards and may have higher rates of obstetric and fetal complications compared to the general population.•Data are poor and insufficient for definitive conclusions on physician pregnancy outcomes. Prospective risk-matched observational studies of physician pregnancy should be pursued.

Objective Data on the physical and mental health benefits of paid maternity leave for mothers and infants is abundant. Data on the make-up of current maternity leave policies in US psychiatry residency programs is not. This survey of program directors was undertaken to assess the components of their program’s policies and the perceived impact of maternity leave on the training of childbearing residents, co-residents, and programs. Methods An anonymous 19-question survey was emailed to US psychiatric residency program directors. Questions assessed demographics for respondents and their programs, composition of maternity leave including paid and unpaid components, and the perception of effects of maternity leave on childbearing residents, co-residents, and programs (with optional free-text elaboration). Results The response rate was 19.5% (49 out of 262 program directors). Many programs require the use of FMLA (81%), vacation days (75%), sick days (75%), and short-term disability (30%) for maternity leave. Around a third (34%) offer separate paid time off varying from 2 to 12 weeks at 80–100% of pay. Most respondents relate a neutral to strongly positive impact of leave on the psychiatric training of childbearing residents (98%) and co-residents (84%), citing benefits like improved empathy, compassion, and patience. Conclusions Maternity leave is seen to have minimal negative impact on training received within psychiatry residency programs. A minority of residents have access to paid maternity leave policies that would best support their health and career trajectories.

Aim: Preterm birth and low birthweight (LBW) lead to infant morbidity and mortality. The causes are unknown. This study evaluates the association between duration of maternity leave and birth outcomes at country level. Method: We compiled data on duration of maternity leave for 180 countries of which 36 specified prenatal leave, 190 specified income, 183 specified preterm birth rates and 185 specified the LBW rate. Multivariate and seemingly unrelated regression analyses were done in STATA. Results: Mean maternity leave duration was 15.4 weeks (SD=7.7; range 4–52 weeks). One additional week of maternity leave was associated with a 0.09% lower preterm rate (95% confidence interval [CI] –0.15 to −0.04) adjusting for income and being an African country. An additional week of maternity leave was associated with a 0.14% lower rate of LBW (95% CI –0.24 to −0.05). Mean prenatal maternity leave across 36 countries was six weeks (SD=2.7; range 2–14 weeks). One week of prenatal maternity leave was associated with a 0.07% lower preterm rate (95% CI –0.10 to 0.24) and a 0.06% lower rate of LBW (95% CI –0.14 to 0.27), but these results were not statistically significant. By adjusting for income status categories, the preterm birth rate was 1.53% higher and the LBW rate was 2.17% higher in Africa compared to the rest of the world. Conclusions: Maternity leave duration is significantly associated with birth outcomes. However, the association was not significant among 36 countries that specified prenatal maternity leave. Studies are needed to evaluate the correlation between prenatal leave and birth outcomes.

This analysis uses March Current Population Survey data from 1999 to 2010 and a differences-in-differences approach to examine how Californias first in the nation paid family leave (PFL) program affected leave-taking by mothers following childbirth, as well as subsequent labor market outcomes. We obtain robust evidence that the California program doubled the overall use of maternity leave, increasing it from an average of three to six weeks for new mothers—with some evidence of particularly large growth for less advantaged groups. We also provide evidence that PFL increased the usual weekly work hours of employed mothers of 1-to 3-year-old children by 10 to 17 percent and that their wage incomes may have risen by a similar amount.

Women who came of age in the late twentieth century were raised in the era of choice; they grew up believing that reproductive decision-making is a political right, a responsibility of women living the successes of second wave feminism, and under their control. Contemplating Maternity in an Era of Choice: Explorations into Discourses of Reproduction explores contemporary maternity both within and in light of these late-twentieth century understandings. Employing a variety of feminist communication approaches, the volume's contributors discuss how discourses of choice shape and are shaped by women's identities and experiences as (non)mothers and how those same discourses affect and reflect private practices and public policies related to reproduction and motherhood. Through this process, the contributors illustrate a variety of ways of conducting feminist thinking, research, and practices within the communication discipline. Major sub-disciplines within communication studies are represented here including feminist organizational, interpersonal, rhetorical, critical/cultural, and social movement studies. Whereas many of the previous scholarly investigations into maternity highlight only one aspect or phase of motherhood, Contemplating Maternity in an Era of Choice is unique because it investigates discourses of choice across the arc of maternity and as enacted through various (non)maternal subject positions.