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"Married women Employment China."
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Work and family in urban China : women's changing experience since Mao
\"This book examines a three-way interaction among market, state, and family in China's recent market reform. Using interview data collected from women of three different cohorts in urban China, this study challenges China's free-market approach and demonstrates its negative impacts on women's work and family experiences. The book also explores urban women's non-market definitions of marital equality, and highlights theoretical and policy implications concerning market efficiency, marital equality, and the state's role in protecting public good.\"-- Provided by publisher.
Book
Gender-Based Employment and Income Differences in Urban China: Considering the Contributions of Marriage and Parenthood
Previous research on China's labor market gender gaps has emphasized the human and political capital disadvantages of women and new discrimination in the reform era. Analyzing the China Urban Labor Survey/China Adult Literacy Survey, this paper shows that while women are significantly disadvantaged by various measures of human and political capital, these disadvantages explain little of the observed gender gaps in employment status and earnings. Instead, gender gaps in employment and earnings are strongly related to family status. It is only married women and mothers who face significant disadvantages. This finding is likely tied to the fact that wives and mothers spend much more time than husbands and fathers doing household chores, even net of controls for potential earnings. These results suggest that research on gender disparities in urban China would be complemented by additional attention to family-work conflict, a topic which looms large in research on gender and labor in most other countries.
Journal Article
Risk factors associated with current intimate partner violence at individual and relationship levels: a cross-sectional study among married rural migrant women in Shanghai, China
ObjectiveTo identify individual and relationship risk factors associated with current intimate partner violence (IPV) against married rural migrant women in Shanghai, China.DesignCross-sectional survey.SettingTwo subdistricts of one administrative district, Shanghai, China.ParticipantsA total of 958 married rural migrant women of reproductive age were selected using a community-based two-stage cluster sampling method in April and May of 2010.Outcome measuresData were collected using a modified questionnaire based on an instrument from the WHO Multi-country Study on Women’s Health and Domestic Violence against Women. Adjusted odds ratio (AOR) and 95% CI from a multivariable logistic regression model were estimated to identify individual and relationship risk factors associated with different types of violence in the past 12 months.ResultsWomen’s low financial autonomy was associated with all types of violence (AORs ranged from 1.98 to 7.89, p<0.05). Quarrelling with husband was a very strong risk factor (AORs >6, p<0.05) for both emotional violence and any violence. Experience of job change in the past year (AOR=4.03, 95% CI 1.57 to 10.35) and history of husband being abused (AOR=4.67, 95% CI 2.17 to 7.69) were strongly associated with physical or sexual violence.ConclusionWomen’s low financial autonomy and unstable employment status at an individual level, quarrelling with husband and history of husband beaten by family members at a relationship level were identified as the most robust risk factors for IPV among married rural migrant women. Efforts to prevent IPV among this population should be made to involve both women and their husbands, with a focus on improving financial autonomy and employment status of women, promoting problem-solving and interaction skills of the couples and changing their knowledge and attitudes towards gender norms and IPV.
Journal Article
The COVID-19 Lockdown and Mental Wellbeing of Females in China
Most studies consider that COVID-19 lockdowns lead to mental health problems for females, while the effect of role change on female mental health has been overlooked. This study aimed to explore multiple facets of the risk of mental distress in a sample of Chinese married females aged 21–50 during the COVID-19 lockdowns. A cross-sectional study was carried out with 613 valid responses from married females in the Guangdong province. Our primary tool was a questionnaire using a Kessler-10 scale to detect the probability of mental distress based on the level of nervousness, tiredness, restlessness, and depression. Eighty-eight point three percent of married females possessed a high risk of psychological distress because they frequently felt tired out, hopeless, and restless. The evidence suggests that the lockdown has caused a conflict in the female role to maintain a balance between family and career. Increasing family care responsibilities are positively associated with nervousness, tiredness, and mental disorder. The heterogeneity of the social role in mental wellbeing is explored. Married females whose income was worse off during the lockdown are negatively associated with mental wellbeing. Married females who are employed are found to be less mentally healthy than the self-employed.
Journal Article
The effect of socioeconomic status on informal caregiving for parents among adult married females: evidence from China
Background
Married female caregivers face a higher risk of an informal care burden than other caregivers. No study has explored the effect of socioeconomic status (SES) on the intensity of informal care provided by married female caregivers in China. The purpose of this study is to empirically examine how the SES of married female caregivers affects the intensity of the informal care they provide for their parents/parents-in-law in China.
Methods
The data for this study were drawn from 8 waves of the China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS). The respondents were married women whose parents/parents-in-law needed care and lived in the same city as them. SES was defined based on four indicators: education, economic status, employment status, and
hukou
(China’s household registration system). Informal caregivers were divided into three categories: non-caregivers (0 h/week), low-intensity caregivers (less than 10 h/week), and high-intensity caregivers (10 h/week and above). Multinomial logistic regression analysis was used to examine the relation between SES and the likelihood of a low- and high-intensity caregiving among married female caregivers, adjusting for age, family characteristics and survey wave.
Results
Of the 2661 respondents, high-intensity and low-intensity caregivers accounted for 16.35 and 21.27%, respectively. The multinomial logistic regression results showed that the likelihood of being a high-intensity caregiver versus (vs. a non-caregiver) increased as the caregiver’s educational attainment increased (
p
< 0.05), and that high economic status was related to the likelihood of being a high-intensity caregiver, but this relationship was only significant at the 10% level. Urban females were 1.34 times more likely than their rural counterparts to provide low-intensity care vs. no care (
p
< 0.05) and were 1.33 times more likely to provide high-intensity care vs. no care (
p
< 0.05). Employed females were 1.25 times more likely than those unemployed females to provide low-intensity care vs. no care (
p
< 0.05).
Conclusions
Differences in SES were found between high-intensity caregivers and low-intensity caregivers. Women with high educational attainment and urban
hukou
were more likely to provide high-intensity informal care, and women who were employed and had urban
hukou
were more likely to provide low-intensity care.
Journal Article
Work, Family, and Gendered Happiness Among Married People in Urban China
Previous studies on subjective well-being primarily focus on individuals’ own characteristics. Pooling data from recent Chinese General Social Surveys (N = 9445), we examine individual happiness among young and middle-aged married people in urban China, by taking into account their spouses’ characteristics. Drawing on the male breadwinner model, we reveal that husband’s employment is much more strongly related to individual happiness of both the husband and the wife than wife’s employment. In addition, a man’s contribution to the household income has a more positive effect on his happiness than a woman’s contribution on her happiness. Meanwhile, those coresiding with both dependent children and parents have lower likelihoods of happiness than those with no dependents. Our results demonstrate that gender roles remain strictly defined in urban China, in which the husband bears the breadwinner role and the wife assumes the homemaker role. Relatedly, living with both parents and dependent children does not lessen the level of happiness any more for women than for men, suggesting that Chinese women do not shirk their caregiving responsibilities.
Journal Article
Gender in Families: A Comparison of the Gendered Division of Child Care in Rural and Urban China
BackgroundUnderstanding the regional differences in child care is critical as the gendered division of child care in the family remains unequal between husbands and wives in China.ObjectiveThe study aims to assess how child care time is divided differently between husband and wife within the families in urban and rural sectors, and how these divisions are associated with factors such as one’s own or spouse’s employment status, educational achievement, and earnings.MethodWe analyzed data from the China Health and Nutrition Survey (2004, 2006, 2009, and 2011), using the relative resources theory, “doing gender” perceptive, as well as the gender attitudes model to explain gender differentials in child care among urban and rural families.ResultsThe gender difference in child care continues to persist but with a variation between urban and rural sectors. In addition to the wife’s own employment status, the husband’s employment status as well as income has played important roles in influencing the child care division inside the household.ConclusionsThe relative resources theory explains the pattern of the gendered division of child care in rural sectors but cannot account for the patterns in urban sectors. Instead, patterns in urban women’s child care time were more consistent with a “doing gender” perspective and urban men’s child care time were consistent with an egalitarian gender attitudes model.
Journal Article
Cohabitation and Gender Equality: Ideal and Real Division of Household Labor among Chinese Youth
China has witnessed the rise of cohabitation and the delay of marriage among young people, but less attention has been paid to cohabitation as a process of living arrangement that may create new room to define gender roles or replicate conventional gender relations. Previous studies have debated on whether cohabitation is an egalitarian union with more symmetric bargaining power and individualistic pursuits, and this study sheds light on how young people in China negotiate their gender role ideologies in cohabiting unions. Based on in-depth interviews with 18 cohabiting couples in Guangzhou, Shenzhen, and nearby cities in South China, this study finds that men were more divided in their gender role ideologies and women were predominantly favorable toward egalitarian beliefs. In the ＂intended egalitarian＂ couples, both partners supported egalitarian ideals and reported sharing housework equally, which served men's family-oriented masculinity and women's individualistic pursuits and self-development. In the ＂discordant＂ couples, with a typical ＂traditional man and egalitarian woman＂ combination, traditional men were more defensive than egalitarian women. Most discordant couples adopted traditional arrangements, and only a few traditional men tolerated egalitarian arrangements as ＂temporary＂ due to their unemployed status or other real-life constraints. Both the celebration of egalitarian ideals in some couples and the persistence of traditional arrangements in others reflect the mixed and uneven trends of gender equalization in the reform-era China.
Journal Article
The Male Breadwinner/Female Homemaker Model and Perceived Marital Stability: A Comparison of Chinese Wives in the United States and Urban China
From in-depth interviews with Chinese immigrant wives in the United States and the Chinese couples in urban China in 2004, researcher found a surprising result in terms of their interpretations of the impact of the male-breadwinner ideal upon perceived marital stability. Over half of the sampled Chinese immigrant wives in the United States reported that they became stay-at-home mothers after their immigration, and most believed that becoming a stay-at-home mother had stabilized their marriage. The traditionally defined gender role for women was actually not as much condemned by the Chinese immigrant wives as it would be if they were in China. When asked whether or not the Chinese urban wives would like to follow the male-breadwinner ideal, a common response was “No way!” Among urban Chinese couples, wives as well as husbands strongly believed that the male-breadwinner ideal would destabilize rather than stabilize their marriage. In this paper, researcher has put forth a hypothesis that the existing familial, economic, and cultural conditions in the United States and urban China play a role in shaping the Chinese couples’ perceptions of the traditional family model and their decision to either adapt or reject it in association with their perceived marital stability.
Journal Article
Income, Work Preferences and Gender Roles among Parents of Infants in Urban China: A Mixed Method Study from Nanjing
This article explores the relationship between gender and income inequality within and across households in an urban Chinese sample by looking at survey data from 381 married couples with infants born in a Nanjing hospital between 2006 and 2007 and in-depth interviews with a subsample of 80 of these couples. We explore the relationship between family income and differences between husbands’ and wives’ work preferences. A couple-level quantitative analysis shows that in lower-income families, husbands were more likely than their wives to prefer career advancement and low stress at work, and wives were more likely than their husbands to prefer state jobs. Our analyses of the qualitative subsample show that, even though high-income husbands and wives are more likely to share similar work preferences, the household division of roles within their marriages is still gendered along traditional lines, as it is in the marriages of low-income couples.
Journal Article