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We investigated population growth rate (λ) for a Merriam's wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo merriami) population in the northern Black Hills, South Dakota, USA. We constructed and evaluated a females-only matrix population model. Our estimate of asymptotic λ, derived from estimates of vital rates obtained from 2016–2018 was 0.74 (95% CI = 0.60, 0.88), which indicates that the vital rates were inadequate to sustain the population. Elasticity values were highest for changes in adult survival probability followed by, in order, changes in juvenile survival, yearling survival, and adult reproduction. We could only achieve stable or growing populations (i.e., λ ≥ 1) by increasing the probability of adult and yearling survival (holding all other vital rates constant). Estimated adult survival rate in the work reported here was lower than values reported for other populations in the Black Hills; therefore, managing for increased female survival (≥0.68) may be the most practical strategy for promoting wild turkey population growth in this system. We recommend no female harvest during any open turkey season.

We compared annual survival and hunting-related mortality of female Merriam’s turkey (Meleagris gallopavo merriami) between a period of relatively liberal hunting regulation (before 1990) and after implementation of a more conservative hunting regulation (after 1991) in Arizona, USA, to determine how those regulation changes affected hunting opportunity. Between January 2013 and October 2016, we used radiotelemetry to estimate survival and mortality rates of 185 female wild turkeys (60 juvenile, 125 adult) on 3 study areas in northern Arizona, which we compared with survival and mortality rates documented during an earlier study (1987–1990; Wakeling 1991). We used the nest survival approach in Program MARK to estimate survival and mortality rates for turkeys. Annual survival rate for radiomarked hens was 0.649 (95% CI = 0.597–0.702). Annual survival differed among Game Management Units, but not by season, year, age, or age × season interaction. Harvest rates were 0.024 (95% CI = 0.011–0.51) and 0.039 (95% CI = 0.022–0.071) for females during spring (Mar–May) and fall (Aug–Oct), respectively. The overall human-caused mortality rate (i.e., fall harvest, spring harvest, unlawful take, wounding loss) was 0.073 (95% CI = 0.046–0.115). The decision to restrict fall turkey hunting opportunities using a regulated permit system had little effect on female turkey survival and hunting-related mortality, but reduced the number of turkey hunters that could participate by 43%.

: Trap and transplant programs have been used throughout the United States for decades to establish self‐sustaining wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo; hereafter, turkey) populations in areas of extirpation, augment declining populations, and reduce populations in response to depredation or nuisance. Current methods for conducting translocations can require substantial safety training and may cause undue stress to turkeys. To develop an effective, efficient, and safe method to capture turkeys, we built modified funnel‐type traps and a specialized hook to remove turkeys from these traps. We tested 2 trap sizes during 2010–2014 at 4 locations in New Mexico. Although 1 trapping session resulted in no captures, over the other 2 trapping sessions, we captured 85 Rio Grande turkeys (M. g. intermedia) and 52 Merriam's turkeys (M. g. merriami), with no mortalities or major injuries. While we did not conduct side‐by‐side comparative studies with other methods and our sample size of only 4 successful capture attempts is small, we believe that this modified funnel trap design was safe and minimally stressful to turkeys and was at least as efficient as rocket or drop nets and other walk‐in trap designs for use in varying habitat types.

Translocation is a widely used tool in wildlife management, but populations established as a result of translocations may be subject to a range of genetic problems, including loss of genetic diversity and founder effects. The genetic impact of single translocation events can be difficult to assess because of complex management histories in translocated or source populations. Here we use molecular markers to assess the genetic impact of three well-documented translocation events, each occurring between 42 and 53 years ago and each originating from a native, extant source population that we also included in our study. Comparing translocated populations to their sources, we found genetic evidence of a recent bottleneck in all three translocated populations, including one which is now a very large, productive population. Based on our results, we recommend caution in (1) using short term census data to assess the long term success of a translocation and (2) conducting serial translocations (i.e., using translocated populations as the source for other translocations), which could exacerbate a genetic bottleneck. We also used the data on translocated populations to investigate the relative utility of three bottleneck detection methods. With this dataset, only assessment of the modal allele frequency distribution, described by Luikart etal. [Journal of Heredity, 89, 238-247 (1998)], provided evidence of a bottleneck in the absence of source population data.[PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]

Merriam's Wild Turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo merriami) is a species of interest for managers and is considered economically valuable through wildlife viewing and hunting. We captured, radio-marked, and monitored 49 turkeys (27 males, 22 females) over a 3-year period (2008–2011) in the Valles Caldera National Preserve, Jemez Mountains, New Mexico. Annual Kaplan-Meier survival estimates varied among years (range 0.33–0.80). Lowest seasonal survival of 0.42 (SE 0.14) occurred during winter 2010 (1 Dec 2009–31 Mar 2010). We observed 20 fatalities of the 49 monitored turkeys. Predation by bobcats (Lynx rufus) and pumas (Puma concolor) accounted for 60% (n = 12) of losses. Hunter harvest (20%), vehicle collision (5%), disease (5%), and unknown causes (10%) accounted for the remaining losses.

: Understanding response of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forest development following a mountain pine beetle (MPB; Dendroctonus ponderosae) epidemic has important management implications for winter habitat conditions for Merriam's wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo merriami; hereafter, turkeys). Therefore, we quantified habitat changes over time for turkeys following a widespread MPB epidemic in the Black Hills of South Dakota and evaluated how many years it will take for optimal winter habitat conditions within ponderosa pine forests to recover following such a disturbance. To do so, we used a Habitat Suitability Index (HSI) model developed for Merriam's turkeys and a Forest Vegetation Simulator (United States Forest Service, Fort Collins, CO, USA). Our HSI indicated winter habitat quality decreased following the MPB outbreak due to conversion of ponderosa pine >40% canopy cover and trees >22.9‐cm diameter at breast height (DBH) to smaller diameter (2.54‐cm to 22.9‐cm DBH) structural stages. Simulations indicated that time for stands to return to optimal winter habitat conditions after the MPB outbreak varied depending on forest structural stage of residual trees and management action. Intensive timber management, particularly precommercial thinning every 20 years, reduced amount of time for forests to develop optimal winter habitat conditions. Importance of intensive management was more pronounced following 75% mortality in stands due to MPB compared to 50% mortality in stands. In some stands, no management versus intensive management may have at least doubled recovery time. We recommend managers use practices such as precommercial thinning every 20 years or uneven‐aged management to substantially reduce time to produce optimal winter habitat conditions for turkeys following a MPB outbreak. Additionally, because our study area historically experienced large‐scale wildfires and MPB epidemics, we recommend silvicultural practices that ensure a mosaic of stand structural stages across the Black Hills to create and maintain a landscape that is resilient to these disturbances.

Concealment cover is important for ground-roosting wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) poults immediately following hatch during the vulnerable, preflight stage. We compared concealment cover resources selected at ground roosts to those of nest sites and available resources for Merriam's turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo merriami) in the Black Hills of South Dakota, USA. Females with preflight poults selected ground roosts that were similar in structure to nest sites. Ground roosts and nests were greater in visual obstruction (unit odds ratios ≥1.19) than random sites. However, ground roosts were closer to meadow–forest edges than either nests or random sites (unit odds ratios ≤0.98). Structure at ground roosts may provide visual protection from predators, and management for shrub vegetation or woody debris along meadow–pine forest ecotones will provide cover for Merriam's turkey broods.

The lack of adequate documentation of wildlife translocations, particularly details regarding the source stock used, have potentially serious implications for wildlife management. Poor documentation of translocations may lead to unintentional mixing of distinct types, potentially causing problems for future management, design of harvest programs, and evolutionary stability. In Kansas, we employed molecular tools and assignment methods to uncover the cryptic distribution of wild turkey subspecies resulting from decades of poorly documented translocations. Pure forms of Eastern (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) and Rio Grande turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo intermedia) remain in many portions of the state, and future translocation programs now have the option to keep these distinct by prohibiting translocations between regions containing different subspecies. In addition, we documented 3 zones of hybridization: 1) at the interface between Eastern and Rio Grande subspecies, 2) in southwest Kansas where immigrant Merriam's turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo merriami) are mixing with translocated Rio Grande turkeys, and 3) surrounding an undocumented translocation of Eastern turkeys within a region characterized primarily by Rio Grande turkeys. The DNA-based techniques employed in this study were extremely informative tools for characterizing the distribution of wild turkeys in Kansas and suggest that such tools could be applied in a multitude of similar situations in other wildlife species.

Because quantity and quality of roosting habitat can affect Merriam's Wild Turkey (Meleagns gallopavo merriami) distribution, we described habitat characteristics of Merriam's turkey roost sites in the southern Black Hills of South Dakota. Varying proportions of Merriam's turkeys in the southern Black Hills depended on supplemental feed from livestock operations during the 2 winters of our study, whereas the remainder wintered in forested habitat away from supplemental feed. We compared characteristics of roost habitat occupied by female turkeys from both groups. We located turkeys with radio-transmitters in the early morning and late evening to find roost sites. Female Merriam's turkeys in the southern Black Hills roosted exclusively in ponderosa pine trees, primarily on the upper portions of ridges on easterly aspects. Generally, trees >30 cm diameter at breast height (dbh) were chosen for roosting, but turkeys also roosted in trees with smaller dbh. During winter months, turkeys that relied on supplemental feeding roosted adjacent to the ranch-farmstead where the supplemental food was located. Generally, these turkeys used the same roost site(s) throughout the winter, whereas turkeys that remained in the forest during winter used multiple roost sites. We suggest maintaining stands of trees >30 cm dbh on the upper portions of easterly aspects to provide suitable roosting habitat for female Merriam's Wild Turkeys in the southern Black Hills.

In northern areas of their expanded range, information on Merriam's turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo merriami) is lacking, specifically pertaining to wintering behavior and factors associated with winter habitat selection. Forest managers need detailed quantification of the effects of logging and other management practices on wintering habitats needed by Wild Turkeys and other wildlife. Therefore, we examined winter habitat selection patterns within ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forests and determined factors associated with use of farmsteads by Merriam's turkeys in the southern Black Hills, South Dakota. We radio-marked 86 female Merriam's turkeys (70 adults and 16 yearlings) and monitored them during winter (1 December–31 March), 2001–2004. Female Wild Turkeys used recently burned pine forest less than expected but selected farmsteads and stands of mature ponderosa pine (<70% overstory canopy cover, >22.9 cm diameter at breast height [DBH] trees) for foraging sites. Within forests, female Wild Turkeys selected foraging sites with less understory vegetation and visual obstruction, and larger-diameter ponderosa pine. Ponderosa pine seed abundance varied among years, and pine seeds were most abundant in stands of 30–35 cm DBH with basal area of 22–28 m2 · ha−1. Abundance of pine seeds may have influenced use of farmsteads by Wild Turkeys, more so than ambient temperatures or snow depth. In the southern Black Hills, management should emphasize open- to mid-canopy and mature-structural-stage pine stands, where seed production was greatest. During winters when mast from pine is unavailable, farmsteads likely provide nutritional supplementation and may be important for maintaining Merriam's turkey populations.