Explore the vast range of titles available.

Open scholarship has transformed research, and introduced a host of new terms in the lexicon of researchers. The ‘Framework for Open and Reproducible Research Teaching’ (FORRT) community presents a crowdsourced glossary of open scholarship terms to facilitate education and effective communication between experts and newcomers.

ObjectivesTarget trial emulation is an approach that is increasingly used to improve transparency in observational studies and help mitigate biases. For studies declaring that they emulated a target trial, we aimed to evaluate the specification of the target trial, examine its consistency with the observational emulation and assess the risk of bias in the observational analysis.DesignMethodological systematic review reported in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses statement.Data sourcesThe database MEDLINE (Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System Online) was interrogated for all studies published from 1 January 2021 to 3 July 2022. We performed an additional manual search of 20 general medical and specialised journals that spanned the same period.Eligibility criteriaAll studies that declared emulating a hypothetical or real randomised trial were eligible.Data extraction and synthesisTwo independent reviewers performed the whole systematic review process (screening and selection of studies, data extraction and risk of bias assessment). The main outcomes were the definition of the key protocol components of the target trial and its emulation, consistency between the target trial and its emulation and risk of bias according to the ROBINS-I (Risk Of Bias In Non-randomised Studies - of Interventions) tool.ResultsAmong the selected sample of 100 studies, 24 (24%) did not specify the target trial. Only 40 studies (40%) provided detailed information on all components of the target trial protocol. Eligibility criteria, intervention strategies and outcomes were consistent between the target trial and its emulation in 35 studies (46% of those specifying the target trial). Overall, 28 studies (28%) exhibited serious risk of bias and 41 (41%) had misalignments in the timing of eligibility assessment, treatment assignment and the start of follow-up (time-zero). As compared with studies that did not specify the target trial, those that did specify the trial less frequently seemed to have both time-zero issues (39% vs 52%) and serious risk of bias (26% vs 33%).ConclusionsOne-quarter of studies declaring that they emulated a target trial did not specify the trial. Target trials and their emulations were particularly inconsistent for studies emulating a real randomised trial. Risk of methodological issues seemed lower in observational analyses that specified versus did not specify the target trial.

The rapid disappearance of tropical forests, the potential impacts of climate change, and the increasing threats of bushmeat hunting to wildlife, makes it imperative that we understand wildlife population dynamics. With long-lived animals this requires extensive, long-term data, but such data is often lacking. Here we present longitudinal data documenting changes in primate abundance over 45 years at eight sites in Kibale National Park, Uganda. Complex patterns of change in primate abundance were dependent on site, sampling year, and species, but all species, except blue monkeys, colonized regenerating forest, indicating that park-wide populations are increasing. At two paired sites, we found that while the primate populations in the regenerating forests had increased from nothing to a substantial size, there was little evidence of a decline in the source populations in old-growth forest, with the possible exception of mangabeys at one of the paired sites. Censuses conducted in logged forest since 1970 demonstrated that for all species, except black-and-white colobus, the encounter rate was higher in the old-growth and lightly-logged forest than in heavily-logged forest. Black-and-white colobus generally showed the opposite trend and were most common in the heavily-logged forest in all but the first year of monitoring after logging, when they were most common in the lightly-logged forest. Overall, except for blue monkey populations which are declining, primate populations in Kibale National Park are growing; in fact the endangered red colobus populations have an annual growth rate of 3%. These finding present a positive conservation message and indicate that the Uganda Wildlife Authority is being effective in managing its biodiversity; however, with constant poaching pressure and changes such as the exponential growth of elephant populations that could cause forest degradation, continued monitoring and modification of conservation plans are needed.

\"This authoritative encyclopedia is perfect for visual learners: it reveals astonishing information about space, Earth, animals, humans and technology through 200 infographics, including maps, charts, timelines and more! Grasp facts at a glance as you turn every page: discover the size of our Sun in comparison to the largest star in the universe; find out which animal can leap 200 times its body length; learn how many cups of snot your body makes a day; compare the sizes of the biggest beasts that have ever lived; witness what happens in a single second across the world\"--Provided by publisher.

Radiotherapy has become much better targeted since the 1980s, improving both safety and efficacy. In breast cancer, radiotherapy to regional lymph nodes aims to reduce risks of recurrence and death. Its effects have been studied in randomised trials, some before the 1980s and some after. We aimed to assess the effects of regional node radiotherapy in these two eras. In this meta-analysis of individual patient data, we sought data from all randomised trials of regional lymph node radiotherapy versus no regional lymph node radiotherapy in women with early breast cancer (including one study that irradiated lymph nodes only if the cancer was right-sided). Trials were identified through the EBCTCG's regular systematic searches of databases including MEDLINE, Embase, the Cochrane Library, and meeting abstracts. Trials were eligible if they began before Jan 1, 2009. The only systematic difference between treatment groups was in regional node radiotherapy (to the internal mammary chain, supraclavicular fossa, or axilla, or any combinations of these). Primary outcomes were recurrence at any site, breast cancer mortality, non-breast-cancer mortality, and all-cause mortality. Data were supplied by trialists and standardised into a format suitable for analysis. A summary of the formatted data was returned to trialists for verification. Log-rank analyses yielded first-event rate ratios (RRs) and confidence intervals. We found 17 eligible trials, 16 of which had available data (for 14 324 participants), and one of which (henceforth excluded), had unavailable data (for 165 participants). In the eight newer trials (12 167 patients), which started during 1989–2008, regional node radiotherapy significantly reduced recurrence (rate ratio 0·88, 95% CI 0·81–0·95; p=0·0008). The main effect was on distant recurrence as few regional node recurrences were reported. Radiotherapy significantly reduced breast cancer mortality (RR 0·87, 95% CI 0·80–0·94; p=0·0010), with no significant effect on non-breast-cancer mortality (0·97, 0·84–1·11; p=0·63), leading to significantly reduced all-cause mortality (0·90, 0·84–0·96; p=0·0022). In an illustrative calculation, estimated absolute reductions in 15-year breast cancer mortality were 1·6% for women with no positive axillary nodes, 2·7% for those with one to three positive axillary nodes, and 4·5% for those with four or more positive axillary nodes. In the eight older trials (2157 patients), which started during 1961–78, regional node radiotherapy had little effect on breast cancer mortality (RR 1·04, 95% CI 0·91–1·20; p=0·55), but significantly increased non-breast-cancer mortality (1·42, 1·18–1·71; p=0·00023), with risk mainly after year 20, and all-cause mortality (1·17, 1·04–1·31; p=0·0067). Regional node radiotherapy significantly reduced breast cancer mortality and all-cause mortality in trials done after the 1980s, but not in older trials. These contrasting findings could reflect radiotherapy improvements since the 1980s. Cancer Research UK, Medical Research Council.

Anthracycline–taxane chemotherapy for early-stage breast cancer substantially improves survival compared with no chemotherapy. However, concerns about short-term and long-term side-effects of anthracyclines have led to increased use of taxane chemotherapy without anthracycline, which could compromise efficacy. We aimed to better characterise the benefits and risks of including anthracycline, and the comparative benefits of different anthracycline–taxane regimens. We did an individual patient-level meta-analysis of randomised trials comparing taxane regimens with versus without anthracycline, and updated our previous meta-analysis of anthracycline regimens with versus without taxane, as well as analysing 44 trials in six related comparisons. We searched databases, including MEDLINE, Embase, the Cochrane Library, and meeting abstracts to identify trials assessing anthracycline and taxane chemotherapy. Adjuvant or neoadjuvant trials were eligible if they began before Jan 1, 2012. Primary outcomes were breast cancer recurrence and cause-specific mortality. Log-rank analyses yielded first-event rate ratios (RRs) and CIs. 28 trials of taxane regimens with or without anthracycline were identified, of which 23 were deemed eligible, and 15 provided data on 18 103 women. Across all 15 trials that provided individual data, recurrence rates were 14% lower on average (RR 0·86, 95% CI 0·79–0·93; p=0·0004) with taxane regimens including anthracycline than those without. Non-breast cancer deaths were not increased but there was one additional acute myeloid leukaemia case per 700 women treated. The clearest reductions in recurrence were found when anthracycline was added concurrently to docetaxel plus cyclophosphamide versus the same dose of docetaxel plus cyclophosphamide (10-year recurrence risk 12·3% vs 21·0%; risk difference 8·7%, 95% CI 4·5–12·9; RR 0·58, 0·47–0·73; p<0·0001). 10-year breast cancer mortality in this group was reduced by 4·2% (0·4–8·1; p=0·0034). No significant reduction in recurrence risk was found for sequential schedules of taxane plus anthracycline when compared with docetaxel plus cyclophosphamide (RR 0·94, 0·83–1·06; p=0·30). For the analysis of anthracycline regimens with versus without taxane, 35 trials (n=52 976) provided individual patient data. Larger recurrence reductions were seen from adding taxane to anthracycline regimens when the cumulative dose of anthracycline was the same in each group (RR 0·87, 0·82–0·93; p<0·0001; n=11 167) than in trials with two-fold higher cumulative doses of non-taxane (mostly anthracycline) in the control group than in the taxane group (RR 0·96, 0·90–1·03; p=0·27; n=14 620). Direct comparisons between anthracycline and taxane regimens showed that a higher cumulative dose and more dose-intense schedules were more efficacious. The proportional reductions in recurrence for taxane plus anthracycline were similar in oestrogen receptor-positive and oestrogen receptor-negative disease, and did not differ by age, nodal status, or tumour size or grade. Anthracycline plus taxane regimens are most efficacious at reducing breast cancer recurrence and death. Regimens with higher cumulative doses of anthracycline plus taxane provide the greatest benefits, challenging the current trend in clinical practice and guidelines towards non-anthracycline chemotherapy, particularly shorter regimens, such as four cycles of docetaxel–cyclophosphamide. By bringing together data from almost all relevant trials, this meta-analysis provides a reliable evidence base to inform individual treatment decisions, clinical guidelines, and the design of future clinical trials. Cancer Research UK, UK Medical Research Council.

The Sino-Tibetan language family is one of the world’s largest and most prominent families, spoken by nearly 1.4 billion people. Despite the importance of the Sino-Tibetan languages, their prehistory remains controversial, with ongoing debate about when and where they originated. To shed light on this debate we develop a database of comparative linguistic data, and apply the linguistic comparative method to identify sound correspondences and establish cognates. We then use phylogenetic methods to infer the relationships among these languages and estimate the age of their origin and homeland. Our findings point to Sino-Tibetan originating with north Chinese millet farmers around 7200 B.P. and suggest a link to the late Cishan and the early Yangshao cultures.