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Background The determination of the microbiological quality and safety of raw milk and the associated influencing factors at the farm level is very critical given that the quality or safety of subsequent products that are further produced depends on this. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the microbiological quality and safety of bulk milk and identify associated risk factors, and assess the presence/absence of S. aureus in bulk milk with potential contaminating sources in dairy farms in Asella, Ethiopia. Results The geometric means of bacterial counts in farm bulk milk were 5.25 log cfu/ml, 3.1 log cfu/ml and 2.97 log cfu/ml for total bacterial count (TBC), coliform count (CC) and coagulase-positive staphylococci count (CPS), respectively. Of the 50 dairy farms, 66, 88, and 32% had TBC, CC and CPS counts, respectively, that exceeded the standard international limits for raw cow’s milk intended for direct human consumption. TBC tended to increase as CC increased in bulk milk (r = 0.5). In the final regression model, increased TBC, CC and the contamination of farm bulk milk by S. aureus were significantly associated with dirty barns, dirty cows and soiled udder and teats. TBC was higher during the rainy season than during the dry season. The reported practice of washing teats with warm water significantly decreased CC and CPS. The occurrence of S. aureus was significantly ( p  < 0.05) higher in bulk farm milk (42%) than in pooled udder milk (37.3%), teat swabs (22.5%), milkers’ hand swabs (18%), bulking bucket swabs (16.7%), milking container swabs (14%), and water for cleaning of udder and milkers’ hands (10%). The questionnaire survey result showed widespred raw milk consumption habits, low level of training and poor hygienic milking practices. Conclusions This study revealed low-quality bulk farm milk with high bacterial counts and a high occurrence of S. aureus . This indicates the potential food safety risks due to consumption of raw milk or its products. This study suggests awareness creation to dairy farmers and the public on hygienic milk production and heat treatment of milk before consumption.

There is widespread contamination by per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) across the globe, with adverse effects on human and environmental health. For human exposure, drinking water and dietary exposure have been recognized as important PFAS exposure pathway for the general population. Several documented cases of dairy milk contamination by PFAS have raised concerns over this exposure pathway in general. A sensitive method for determination of 27 PFAS in milk was hence modified and applied on raw and processed milk samples from 13 farms across the United States (U.S.). A combination of acid and basic extraction method and ENVI-Carb clean-up achieved recoveries of targeted PFAS between 70 and 141%. The method detection limits (MDL) ranged from 0.8 to 22 ng/L (for 26 PFAS) and 144 ng/L for perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA). The uniqueness of this method is considered in the targeted screening of a broad range of legacy PFAS, as well as perfluorinated sulfonamide species and fluorotelomer sulfonates. No legacy PFAS were detected in 13 milk samples from regions of concern given local use of biosolids or proximity to fire training areas. Overall, then, the uptake of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAA) from dairy milk in the U.S. is considered low.

Dairy biofilms as a source of contamination of milk and its products are of great concern in the dairy industry. For a reliable risk assessment, knowledge about the microbial community composition of biofilms in the milking systems of dairy farms must be improved. In this work, swab samples of milking machine biofilms of two dairy farms were investigated by a combination of culture-dependent and -independent methods. Spots in the milking system with enhanced microbial colonization were identified by quantification on selective and non-selective media. In addition, stainless steel coupons were placed into the piping system of a milking machine, removed after several milking intervals, and investigated for colonization by cultivation and culture-independently. Isolates were differentiated and identified by a combination of chemotaxonomical methods and 16S rRNA sequencing. The culture-independent approach involved treatment of the samples with the viability dye propidium monoazide prior to direct DNA-extraction by enzymatic cell lysis and cloning to exclude bias from dead biomass. The milking equipment retainers and the outlet of the milk bulk tank were identified as highly colonized spots on both farms. A high bacterial diversity was detected covering the phyla Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, and Proteobacteria. Presence of biofilms was demonstrated on several materials including stainless steel and plastic, which are frequently used in milking machines, but also in dairy processing plants. Growth of mainly Gram-positive bacteria with high percentages of the phylum Actinobacteria was detected on the stainless steel coupons after exposition in the milking system for two to three days. Knowledge about the heterogenic microbial load on different parts of the milking machines and the stainless steel coupons will help to identify primary colonizers of the milking system, to assess the risk potential of biofilms for raw milk, to improve sanitation processes and to identify parts of the milking machine, which should be improved by hygienic design.

Although milk and dairy products are almost complete food, they can contain toxic heavy elements with potential hazards for consumers. This review aims to provide a comprehensive report on the occurrence, concentration, and health risks of selected heavy metals in pasteurized and sterilized milk recorded worldwide. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) was used to develop this systematic review. Databases included the Web of Knowledge, Scopus, Scientific Information Database, Google Scholar, and PubMed from inception until January 2023. Keywords related to the terms \"Heavy metals\", \"Arsenic\" and \"Pasteurized and sterilized milk\" and \"Risk Assessment\" were used. The potential health risks to human health from milk daily consumption were estimated using extracted data on heavy metals concentration based on metal estimated daily intake, target hazard quotient, and carcinogenic risk. A total of 48 potentially relevant articles with data on 981 milk samples were included in the systematic review. Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy, atomic absorption spectroscopy, inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry, and inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry were the most common valid methods to measure heavy metals in milk samples. Following the initial evaluation, Cu, Cd, Zn, and Pb were the most contaminants, which exceeded the maximum permissible criteria in 94%, 67%, 62%, and 46% of the milk samples tested. Relying on target hazard quotient and carcinogenic risk results, milk consumers in 33(68.75%) and 7 (14.5%) studies were exposed to moderate to high levels of carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk, respectively. The highest level of risk is due to the consumption of pasteurized and sterilized milk detected in Pakistan, Brazil, Egypt, Slovakia, and Turkey. The elevated levels of heavy metals in milk samples, especially Pb and Cd is a public health concern; therefore, maximum control and strict regulations must be adopted to decrease heavy metals contaminants in the dairy industry. Further studies are required to develop safe milk processing and handling methods for the decontamination of heavy metals in milk and its products.

Background Milk can sometimes carry harmful mycotoxins, which pose health risks, especially in hot and humid areas. We collected samples from both farms and households in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), Pakistan, to see how common these toxins are, whether the genes that make them are present, and which environmental factors might make contamination worse. Methods We tested raw milk for aflatoxins (AFM1, AFM2), ochratoxin A (OTA), and zearalenone (ZEN) using TLC, HPLC, and UHPLC-MS/MS. All testing procedures were validated following ICH Q2(R2), ISO 17025, and FDA guidance. PCR was applied to check for the genes aflC , otaA , and zen1 . We then combined chemical, molecular, microbial, and environmental data and used multivariate statistics and PLS-DA modeling to find the main factors driving contamination. Results Milk from farms had higher mycotoxin levels than household milk. Average AFM1 concentrations were g/kg in farm milk and g/kg in domestic milk (p < 0.001). AFM2 and OTA showed similar patterns, while ZEN was below detection in all samples. UHPLC-MS/MS confirmed the HPLC findings and offered greater sensitivity. The genes aflC and otaA were found in 68% of farm samples and were strongly linked to AFM1 and OTA levels, while zen1 was absent. High temperature (over 28°C) and humidity (over 75%) were associated with increased contamination. PLS-DA modeling effectively distinguished high- and low-risk samples (AUC = 0.92), highlighting AFM1 concentration, aflC presence, and humidity as key predictors. Conclusions Combining chemical testing, gene screening, and environmental monitoring provides a practical way to detect and evaluate mycotoxin risk in milk. Farm milk showed higher contamination than household milk, emphasizing the need for targeted monitoring and preventive measures. Identifying environmental thresholds and risk factors can support early interventions to improve food safety and protect public health.

Milk is a vital and widely consumed food, but contamination by biological, chemical, and physical factors can lead to milk-borne diseases. Mastitis, particularly subclinical mastitis (SCM), is a significant biological factor that deteriorates milk quality. Among the 135 agents causing SCM, Staphylococcus epidermidis , a Gram-positive coagulase-negative staphylococcus, plays a notable role. The excessive and indiscriminate use of antibiotics in treating mastitis has led to the emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) strains, posing threats to both animal and human health. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of SCM and identify MDR S. epidermidis isolates in raw milk samples from dairy cattle and ewes, and explore the presence of antibiotic resistance genes ( mecA , tetK , and ermC ) in these isolates. A total of 310 milk samples were collected from Holstein Friesian and Cholistani cattle, as well as ewes under transhumant and sedentary husbandry systems. The results revealed a 26% overall prevalence of SCM, with a higher incidence in ewes (31.34%) than in cattle (21.87%). Within cattle, SCM prevalence rate was 40% in the Cholistani breed and 17.69% in the Holstein breed. S. epidermidis was detected in 12.9% of the samples, with 72.5% of these isolated from SCM cases. Antibiotic susceptibility tests showed high resistance rates to penicillin and erythromycin (95%), moderate resistance rates to cotrimoxazole, doxycycline, clindamycin, and chloramphenicol, and low resistance rates to levofloxacin and ciprofloxacin (5%). Notably, 50% of the isolates were MDR. Among the resistance genes, ermC was most prevalent (87.5%), followed by tetK (80%) and mecA (45%). These findings underscore the widespread presence of S. epidermidis in both healthy and SCM-affected dairy animals, as defined by elevated somatic cell counts, highlighting its dual role as a commensal organism and a potential pathogen, resulting in significant implications for antibiotic resistance management in dairy farming.

In Brazil, contamination of raw milk with Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTC) has been reported in several states. The highest rate of consumption of raw milk and its derivatives in Brazil occurs in Amazonas. This state also has the highest prevalence of tuberculosis in both humans and livestock. We assessed the contamination of cow's milk and buffalo's milk with MTC in Amazonas, focusing on Mycobacterium bovis, the species most commonly found in cattle and buffalo. In 2019, 250 samples of raw milk (91 from cattle, 159 from buffalo) were collected before processing from three milk plants in the state of Amazonas. The samples were placed into 21 pools and analyzed using shotgun metagenomic sequencing and taxonomic classification with Kraken 2 and MegaBLAST. To confirm the identity of mycobacterial species found, BLASTN was used to identify specific genomic positions in the TbD1 and RD1 regions and flanking RD4 region. MTC genetic material was identified in all pools of raw milk. Genetic material consistent with M. bovis was identified in seven pools of raw milk (1 from cattle, 6 from buffalo). Buffalo's milk had significantly higher MTC reads than did cow's milk. The common practice of consumption of raw milk and its derivatives in Amazonas presents a risk to public health. Urgent measures to prevent transmission of foodborne tuberculosis are needed in the Amazon region. Greater efforts and resources also should be directed toward elimination of bovine tuberculosis in cattle and buffalo herds in Amazonas and the rest of Brazil. MTC contamination was detected in raw milk in dairy plants before treatment.MTC contamination was significantly greater in buffalo's milk than in cow's milk.Surveillance of pooled milk samples can detect herds infected by MTC.Shotgun metagenomic sequencing could be used to screen herds for MTC.Consumption of raw milk in Amazonas may result in exposure to tuberculosis.

Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) are synthetic chemicals commonly used in various industries for their water-, grease-, and stain-repellent properties. These compounds are highly persistent in the environment and can be absorbed by farm animals, subsequently contaminating animal-derived products. This contamination poses a significant health risk to humans who consume these products. Previous studies have identified cow's milk as one of the primary animal products contaminated with PFCs. However, it remains unclear which specific PFCs increase in concentrations over time. In this study, we analysed data on the concentrations of 24 PFCs in cow's milk sourced from a milk processing plant in Taiyuan, Shanxi Province, China, over a three-year period, as provided by the National Agriculture Science Data Centre. Our analysis revealed that perfluoropentanoic acid (PFPeA) and perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA) were the dominant PFCs that tended to accumulate in cow's milk over time. Consequently, consumers and milk producers should monitor the levels of PFPeA and PFBA in cow's milk to mitigate potential health risks associated with these pollutants.

Aflatoxins (AFs) are fungal metabolites that are found in feed and food. When ruminants eat feed contaminated with aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), it is metabolised and aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is excreted in the milk. Aflatoxins can result in hepatotoxic, carcinogenic, and immunosuppressive effects. The European Union thus set a low threshold limit (50 ng/L) for presence of AFM1 in milk. This was in view of its possible presence also in dairy products and that quantification of these toxins is mandatory for milk suppliers. In the present study, a total of 95,882 samples of whole raw milk, collected in northern Italy between 2013 and 2021, were evaluated for presence of AFM1 using an ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) method. The study also evaluated the relationship between feed materials collected from the same farms in the same area during the same period (2013–2021) and milk contamination. Only 667 milk samples out of 95,882 samples analysed (0.7%) showed AFM1 values higher than the EU threshold limit of 50 ng/L. A total of 390 samples (0.4%) showed values between 40 and 50 ng/L, thus requiring corrective action despite not surpassing the regulatory threshold. Combining feed contamination and milk contamination data, some feedingstuffs seem to be more effective in defying potential carryover of AFs from feed to milk. Combining the results, it can be concluded that a robust monitoring system that covers both feed, with a special focus on high risk/sentinel matrices, and milk is essential to guarantee high quality and safety standards of dairy products.