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There is little systematic assessment of how total health expenditure is distributed across diseases and comorbidities. The objective of this study was to use statistical methods to disaggregate all publicly funded health expenditure by disease and comorbidities in order to answer three research questions: (1) What is health expenditure by disease phase for noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) in New Zealand? (2) Is the cost of having two NCDs more or less than that expected given the independent costs of each NCD? (3) How is total health spending disaggregated by NCDs across age and by sex? We used linked data for all adult New Zealanders for publicly funded events, including hospitalisation, outpatient, pharmaceutical, laboratory testing, and primary care from 1 July 2007 to 30 June 2014. These data include 18.9 million person-years and $26.4 billion in spending (US$ 2016). We used case definition algorithms to identify if a person had any of six NCDs (cancer, cardiovascular disease [CVD], diabetes, musculoskeletal, neurological, and a chronic lung/liver/kidney [LLK] disease). Indicator variables were used to identify the presence of any of the 15 possible comorbidity pairings of these six NCDs. Regression was used to estimate excess annual health expenditure per person. Cause deletion methods were used to estimate total population expenditure by disease. A majority (59%) of health expenditure was attributable to NCDs. Expenditure due to diseases was generally highest in the year of diagnosis and year of death. A person having two diseases simultaneously generally had greater health expenditure than the expected sum of having the diseases separately, for all 15 comorbidity pairs except the CVD-cancer pair. For example, a 60-64-year-old female with none of the six NCDs had $633 per annum expenditure. If she had both CVD and chronic LLK, additional expenditure for CVD separately was $6,443/$839/$9,225 for the first year of diagnosis/prevalent years/last year of life if dying of CVD; additional expenditure for chronic LLK separately was $6,443/$1,291/$9,051; and the additional comorbidity expenditure of having both CVD and LLK was $2,456 (95% confidence interval [CI] $2,238-$2,674). The pattern was similar for males (e.g., additional comorbidity expenditure for a 60-64-year-old male with CVD and chronic LLK was $2,498 [95% CI $2,264-$2,632]). In addition to this, the excess comorbidity costs for a person with two diseases was greater at younger ages, e.g., excess expenditure for 45-49-year-old males with CVD and chronic LLK was 10 times higher than for 75-79-year-old males and six times higher for females. At the population level, 23.8% of total health expenditure was attributable to higher costs of having one of the 15 comorbidity pairs over and above the six NCDs separately; of the remaining expenditure, CVD accounted for 18.7%, followed by musculoskeletal (16.2%), neurological (14.4%), cancer (14.1%), chronic LLK disease (7.4%), and diabetes (5.5%). Major limitations included incomplete linkage to all costed events (although these were largely non-NCD events) and missing private expenditure. The costs of having two NCDs simultaneously is typically superadditive, and more so for younger adults. Neurological and musculoskeletal diseases contributed the largest health system costs, in accord with burden of disease studies finding that they contribute large morbidity. Just as burden of disease methodology has advanced the understanding of disease burden, there is a need to create disease-based costing studies that facilitate the disaggregation of health budgets at a national level.

ObjectivesThere are little available data on the prevalence, economic and quality of life impacts of musculoskeletal disorders in sub-Saharan Africa. This lack of evidence is wholly disproportionate to the significant disability burden of musculoskeletal disorders as reported in high-income countries. Our research aimed to undertake an adequately powered study to identify, measure and value the health impact of musculoskeletal conditions in the Kilimanjaro region, Tanzania.DesignA community-based cross-sectional survey was undertaken between January 2021 and September 2021. A two-stage cluster sampling with replacement and probability proportional to size was used to select a representative sample of the population.SettingThe survey was conducted in 15 villages in the Hai District, Kilimanjaro region, Tanzania.ParticipantsEconomic and health-related quality of life (HRQOL) questionnaires were administered to a sample of residents (aged over 5 years old) in selected households (N=1050). There were a total of 594 respondents, of whom 153 had a confirmed musculoskeletal disorder and 441 matched controls. Almost three-quarters of those identified as having a musculoskeletal disorder were female and had an average age of 66 years.Primary and secondary outcome measuresQuestions on healthcare resource use, expenditure and quality of life were administered to all participants, with additional more detailed economic and quality of life questions administered to those who screened positive, indicating probable arthritis.ResultsThere is a statistically significant reduction in HRQOL, on average 25% from a utility score of 0.862 (0.837, 0.886) to 0.636 (0.580, 0.692) for those identified as having a musculoskeletal disorder compared with those without. The attributes ‘pain’ and ‘discomfort’ were the major contributors to this reduction in HRQOL.ConclusionsThis research has revealed a significant impact of musculoskeletal conditions on HRQOL in the Hai district in Tanzania. The evidence will be used to guide clinical health practices, interventions design, service provisions and health promotion and awareness activities at institutional, regional and national levels.

ObjectivesMusculoskeletal pain often occurs at multiple sites concurrently. The aim of this study was to examine the associations between multi-site pain and self-rated work ability and retirement plans among actively working people.MethodsThe Health 2000 Survey was carried among a representative sample of Finnish adults. Musculoskeletal pain during the preceding month in the lower back, neck or shoulders, upper extremities, hips and lower extremities, and work ability and intentions to retire early were assessed. Subjects were also clinically examined. Analyses were restricted to 30–64-year-old subjects actively working during the preceding 12 months who provided information on work ability outcomes (population-weighted number of subjects=4087). Log-binomial regression was used to estimate prevalence ratios of reduced work ability.ResultsSingle-site pain was reported by 33% of subjects, 20%, 9% and 4% reported pain in two, three and four sites, respectively, and 8%–15% reported poor work ability. Every fifth person had thought about retiring early. Age- and gender-adjusted risks of poor physical work ability and own prognosis of poor future work ability increased from 2 for single-site pain to 8 for pain at four sites. Risks remained considerably elevated after adjustment for various covariates, including clinical musculoskeletal disorders and functional capacity. Poor current work ability was most affected by multi-site pain at older age (50–64 years) and intentions to retire early at age 40–49 years.ConclusionsCo-occurring pain is a considerable threat to work ability. Workers with multi-site pain may benefit from targeted preventive measures to sustain their work ability. Future studies should also consider multi-site pain as an important risk factor for reduced work ability.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to assess 12-month outcomes on return to work (RTW) and cost-effectiveness in adults on sick leave due to musculoskeletal disorders who were randomized to either usual case management (UC), UC+motivational interviewing (MI) or UC+stratified vocational advice intervention (SVAI). METHODS: The study was conducted in the Norwegian Labor and Welfare Administration (NAV). Workers on sick leave due to musculoskeletal disorders for ≥50% of their contracted work hours for ≥7 consecutive weeks were included. Trained caseworkers delivered MI in two face-to-face sessions, and physiotherapists provided SVAI and identified RTW obstacles. The main outcomes were sick leave days over 12 months and cost-effectiveness, cost-utility and cost-benefit. RESULTS: The trial included 509 workers with a mean age of 48 years. There were statistically significant differences between UC+MI versus UC [-15.6 days, 95% confidence interval (CI) -31.0– -0.2], and UC+SVAI versus UC (-17.6 days, 95% CI -33.0– -2.2). Compared to UC, odds ratios (OR) for receiving wage replacement benefits each month were lower for UC+MI (OR=0.73, 95% CI 0.64–0.84), and UC+SVAI (OR 0.74, 95% CI 0.64–0.84). The probabilities of cost-effectiveness were high for adding either MI or SVAI to UC (ceiling ratio 0.90), and the net benefit for MI was €5225 (95% CI -592–10 985) and for SVAI €7214 ((95% CI 1548–12 851) per person. CONCLUSIONS: Adding MI or SVAI to UC significantly improved RTW outcomes and was cost-effective among people on sickness absence due to musculoskeletal disorders.

Background The convergence of rising health care costs and physician shortages have made health care transformation a priority in many countries resulting in the emergence of new models of care that often involve the extension of the scope of practice for allied health professionals. Physiotherapists in advanced practice/extended scope roles have emerged as key providers in such new models, especially in settings providing services to patients with musculoskeletal disorders. However, evidence of the systematic evaluation of advance physiotherapy practice (APP) models of care is scarce. A systematic review was done to update the evaluation of physiotherapists in APP roles in the management of patients with musculoskeletal disorders. Methods Structured literature search was conducted in 3 databases (Medline, Cinahl and Embase) for articles published between 1980 and 2011. Included studies needed to present original quantitative data that addressed the impact or the effect of APP care. A total of 16 studies met all inclusion criteria and were included. Pairs of raters used four structured quality appraisal methodological tools depending on design of studies to analyse included studies. Results Included studies varied in designs and objectives and could be categorized in four areas: diagnostic agreement or accuracy compared to medical providers, treatment effectiveness, economic efficiency or patient satisfaction. There was a wide range in the quality of studies (from 25% to 93%), with only 43% of papers reaching or exceeding a score of 70% on the methodological quality rating scales. Their findings are however consistent and suggest that APP care may be as (or more) beneficial than usual care by physicians for patients with musculoskeletal disorders, in terms of diagnostic accuracy, treatment effectiveness, use of healthcare resources, economic costs and patient satisfaction. Conclusions The emerging evidence suggests that physiotherapists in APP roles provide equal or better usual care in comparison to physicians in terms of diagnostic accuracy, treatment effectiveness, use of healthcare resources, economic costs and patient satisfaction. There is a need for more methodologically sound studies to evaluate the effectiveness APP care.

Background Musculoskeletal disorders are an extensive burden to society, yet few studies have explored and replicated modifiable prognostic factors associated with high societal costs. This study aimed to replicate previously identified associations between nine modifiable prognostic factors and high societal costs among people on sick leave due to musculoskeletal disorders. Methods Pooled data from a three-arm randomised controlled trial with 6 months of follow-up were used, including 509 participants on sick leave due to musculoskeletal disorders in Norway. Consistent with the identification study, the primary outcome was societal costs dichotomised as high (top 25th percentile) or low. Societal costs included healthcare utilization (primary, secondary, and tertiary care) and productivity loss (absenteeism, work assessment allowance and disability benefits) collected from public records. Binary unadjusted and adjusted logistic regression analyses were used to replicate previously identified associations between each modifiable prognostic factor and having high costs. Results Adjusted for selected covariates, a lower degree of return-to-work expectancy was associated with high societal costs in both the identification and replication sample. Depressive symptoms and health literacy showed no prognostic value in both the identification and replication sample. There were inconsistent results with regards to statistical significance across the identification and replication sample for pain severity, self-perceived health, sleep quality, work satisfaction, disability, and long-lasting disorder expectation. Similar results were found when high costs were related to separately healthcare utilization and productivity loss. Conclusion This study successfully replicated the association between return-to-work expectancy and high societal costs among people on sick leave due to musculoskeletal disorders. Other factors showed no prognostic value or inconsistent results. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03871712, 12th of March 2019.

Health care costs in the United States are skyrocketing, with commercial spending increasing 7.7% between 2022 and 2023. Musculoskeletal conditions affect more than one-third of US adults and account for over US $300 billion in total medical spending, more than any other chronic condition. Employers bear a disproportionate burden of these costs, both because they pay for the care of employees and their families with musculoskeletal conditions and because musculoskeletal pain is the second leading cause of workplace absenteeism, accounting for approximately 290 million lost workdays annually. Tele-physical therapy (TPT) solutions can be an effective alternative to in-person physical therapy (PT) and, especially when provided early in the course of care, have the potential to reduce employer-sponsored health care spending. We sought to evaluate the effects of a proactive musculoskeletal treatment approach-TPT integrated into advanced primary care-on patient access, changes in functional status, and employer cost. We performed a retrospective analysis of participants (>13 years old) seen by TPT integrated with primary care compared to a risk-adjusted, nationally matched cohort of patients receiving PT. The studied intervention had five key elements: (1) a multidisciplinary team, (2) a musculoskeletal toolkit for primary care physicians, (3) a peer-to-peer musculoskeletal expert opinion portal, (4) a shared technology platform, and (5) musculoskeletal educational rounds. We collected participants' access to both primary care and PT and compared participants' functional status at baseline and at the end of their course of PT to risk-adjusted Focus on Therapeutic Outcomes controls, providers' assessments of participants' progress with PT, participants' satisfaction with their TPT, and costs of care. We evaluated 1563 participants whose average age was 42.8 (SD 10.4) years. Of these, 586 (37.5%) identified as female, 574 (36.7%) as White, 182 (11.6%) as Asian, and 19 (1.2%) as Black or African American. Their presenting complaints included shoulder pain (282/1563, 18%), knee pain (250/1563, 16%), and low back pain (187/1563, 11.96%). The mean time to TPT appointment was 7.6 (SD 5) days. On average, TPT patients required 5.4 (SD 2.7) visits to symptom resolution, compared to 6.5 (SD 5.5) visits for controls (a 17% reduction) and 10.3 (SD 1.55) predicted visits from risk-adjusted benchmarks, resulting in US $193 to US $1411 in savings per injury per patient. Recovery, defined as patients either meeting, mostly meeting, or on track to meet expectations, was achieved for 461/473 (97.5%) participants for whom it was assessed. Overall participant satisfaction was high, with a net promoter score for PTs of 97. TPT integrated with advanced primary care was associated with greater functional improvement in 17% fewer visits compared to usual care. This model holds considerable promise for addressing the escalating musculoskeletal costs of US commercially insured populations.

Musculoskeletal disorders are a leading cause of healthcare utilization and disability among the millions of school employees in the United States. While school-based workplace wellness programs have demonstrated improvements in health behaviors, the long-term financial impact of these programs remains unclear. Identify factors associated with health insurance claims costs within a school district featuring a workplace wellness program emphasizing health behaviors aligned with the functional medicine model of care. Ashland School District in Oregon, USA. Ashland School District employee health plan participants. Medical and pharmacy claims from 2010 to 2021 were included for analysis. Multivariate linear regression models of medical and pharmacy claims costs were constructed including year of claim, age, sex, baseline comorbidities, and whether the participant received functional medicine care. The sample included 1,178 participants with musculoskeletal disorders and a total of 92,922 claims. Older age ($46.28 per year, P < .0001) and comorbidities ($258.24 per comorbidity, P = .03) were associated with higher yearly per member medical claims. Older age ($21.84 per year, P < .0001) and comorbidities ($335.62 per comorbidity, P < .0001) were also associated with higher yearly per member pharmacy claims. Receiving functional medicine care (-$534.81, P = .0002) was associated with lower yearly per member pharmacy claims. There were no meaningful changes in total medical or pharmacy claims costs over time after adjustment for covariates (P > .4). Medical and pharmacy claims remained stable over the study period among employee health plan participants with musculoskeletal disorders, and functional medicine care was associated with significantly lower pharmacy claims costs.

Aim Musculoskeletal conditions constitute a remarkable portion of disability cases in the military. This study evaluated the distribution and types of musculoskeletal problems and estimated the direct and indirect costs due to these complaints in an Iranian military hospital. Methods All medical records of patients with musculoskeletal complaints that were referred to the medical committee of a military hospital, including rheumatology, orthopedics, and neuro-surgical specialists, from 2014 to 2016, were reviewed. Details of each complaint and the final opinion of the medical committees were recorded. The cost of each diagnostic step was calculated based on the recorded data. The treatment costs were estimated for each complaint by calculating the average cost of treatment plans suggested by two specialists, a physical medicine and a rheumatologist. The estimated cost for each part is calculated based on the army insurance low. Indirect costs due to absences, inability to work, and disability were assessed and added to the above-mentioned direct costs. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS version 21. Results 2,116 medical records of the committee were reviewed. 1252 (59.16%) cases were soldiers (who had to spend two years of mandatory duty in the army), and 864 (40.83%) cases were non-soldiers. The three most common complaints were fractures (301 cases, 14.22%), low back pain due to lumbar disc bulges and herniations (303 cases, 14.31%), and genu varus/genu valgus (257 cases, 12.14%). The most affected sites were the lower limbs and vertebral column. According to an official document in these subjects’ records, 4120 person-days absent from work were estimated annually, and nearly $1,172,149 of annual economic impact was calculated. Conclusion Musculoskeletal problems are common in the army, and establishing preventive strategies for these conditions is essential. The conservative and medical approach and the proper education for correct movement and the situation should be mentioned for the reduction of disability and its economic burden on the army’s staff.