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To investigate the efficacy and safety of three mycelia (EAHE) capsules (350 mg/capsule; containing 5 mg/g erinacine A active ingredient) per day for the treatment of patients with mild Alzheimer's Disease (AD). This study comprised a 3-week no-drug screening period, followed by a 49-week double-blind treatment period with 2-parallel groups in which eligible patients were randomized to either three 5 mg/g EAHE mycelia capsules per day or identical appearing placebo capsules. Cognitive assessments, ophthalmic examinations, biomarker collection, and neuroimaging were followed throughout the study period. After 49 weeks of EAHE intervention, a significant decrease in Cognitive Abilities Screening Instrument score was noted in the placebo group, a significant improvement in Mini-Mental State Examination score was observed in the EAHE group and a significant Instrumental Activities of Daily Living score difference were found between the two groups. In addition, EAHE group achieved a significantly better contrast sensitivity when compared to the placebo group. Moreover, only the placebo group observed significantly lowered biomarkers such as calcium, albumin, apolipoprotein E4, hemoglobin, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor and significantly elevated alpha1-antichymotrypsin and amyloid-beta peptide 1-40 over the study period. Using diffusion tensor imaging, the mean apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) values from the arcuate fasciculus region in the dominant hemisphere significantly increased in the placebo group while no significant difference was found in the EAHE group in comparison to their baselines. Moreover, ADC values from the parahippocampal cingulum region in the dominant hemisphere significantly decreased in the EAHE group whereas no significant difference was found in the placebo group when compared to their baselines. Lastly, except for four subjects who dropped out of the study due to abdominal discomfort, nausea, and skin rash, no other adverse events were reported. Three 350 mg/g EAHE capsules intervention for 49 weeks demonstrated higher CASI, MMSE, and IADL scores and achieved a better contrast sensitivity in patients with mild AD when compared to the placebo group, suggesting that EAHE is safe, well-tolerated, and may be important in achieving neurocognitive benefits. ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier NCT04065061.

The decomposition of dead plant biomass contributes to the carbon cycle and is one of the key processes in temperate forests. While fungi in litter decomposition drive the chemical changes occurring in litter, the bacterial community appears to be important as well, especially later in the decomposition process when its abundance increases. In this paper, we describe the bacterial community composition in live Quercus petraea leaves and during the subsequent two years of litter decomposition. Members of the classes Alpha-, Beta- and Gammaproteobacteria and the phyla Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes and Acidobacteria were dominant throughout the experiment. Bacteria present in the oak phyllosphere were rapidly replaced by other taxa after leaf senescence. There were dynamic successive changes in community composition, in which the early-stage (months 2–4), mid-stage (months 6–8) and late-stage (months 10–24) decomposer communities could be distinguished, and the diversity increased with time. Bacteria associated with dead fungal mycelium were important during initial decomposition, with sequence relative abundances of up to 40% of the total bacterial community in months 2 and 4 when the highest fungal biomass was observed. Cellulose-decomposing bacteria were less frequent, with abundance ranging from 4% to 15%. The bacterial community dynamics reflects changes in the availability of possible resources either of the plant or microbial origin. Bacterial community associated with decomposing leaf litter: description of its composition, function and relationship with other microorganisms.

Associations between plants and symbiotic fungi—mycorrhizas—are ubiquitous in plant communities. Tedersoo et al. review recent developments in mycorrhizal research, revealing the complex and pervasive nature of this largely invisible interaction. Complex networks of mycorrhizal hyphae connect the root systems of individual plants, regulating nutrient flow and competitive interactions between and within plant species, controlling seedling establishment, and ultimately influencing all aspects of plant community ecology and coexistence. Science , this issue p. eaba1223 Mycorrhizal fungi provide plants with a range of benefits, including mineral nutrients and protection from stress and pathogens. Here we synthesize current information about how the presence and type of mycorrhizal association affect plant communities. We argue that mycorrhizal fungi regulate seedling establishment and species coexistence through stabilizing and equalizing mechanisms such as soil nutrient partitioning, feedback to soil antagonists, differential mycorrhizal benefits, and nutrient trade. Mycorrhizal fungi have strong effects on plant population and community biology, with mycorrhizal type–specific effects on seed dispersal, seedling establishment, and soil niche differentiation, as well as interspecific and intraspecific competition and hence plant diversity.

In this study, various vegetable proteins and two different mycelia of P. sapidus [submerged cultivated with isomaltulose molasses (Südzucker AG, Offstein) or apple pomace (Döhler AG, Darmstadt)] were examined in a vegan boiled sausage analog system and compared with two different formulations of boiled sausage (German recipe/Russian recipe) by sensory tests and texture profile analysis (TPA). The samples were analyzed and tasted immediately after production and after 4 weeks of storage at 2 °C. In addition, the aw value, pH value, color (L × a × b value), and weight loss after boiling were determined. The hardness of the samples as determined by TPA was correlated with the sensory impressions. Compared to the Russian formulation, the vegan alternative with basidiomycetous mycelia showed particularly strong advantages in terms of strength and hardness. The use of mycelia of basidiomycetes proved to be a suitable alternative to commercial vegetable proteins.

Inonotus hispidus is a traditional medicinal mushroom in China with significant potential for development of health products and future foods, owing to its diverse functional components and pharmacological activities. Recent advancements in cultivation techniques, coupled with growing market demand, have expanded the production scale of I. hispidus . Breeding superior strains is essential for industry progress, but the absence of clamp connections in I. hispidus complicates mating system studies, making accurate identification of homokaryotic strains a critical step. In this study, we first confirmed the multinucleate nature of both heterokaryotic and homokaryotic mycelia, revising the traditional concepts of monokaryotic and dikaryotic mycelia in this species. Additionally, the mating type loci of I. hispidus were identified through genome sequencing and homologous gene BLAST analysis. Homokaryotic and heterokaryotic strains were distinguished based on sequence differences at the mating type loci between different mating types, which also allowed for differentiation of the mating types themselves. Furthermore, by combining traditional mating tests, we clearly elucidated the bipolar mating system of I. hispidus , refuting previous reports of a tetrapolar system. The growth rate of mycelium, its performance on a wheat grain substrate, as well as the antagonism between the homokaryotic strain and the heterokaryotic parent strain have been demonstrated to be useful for distinguishing the homokaryons. This study established a reliable method for identifying homokaryotic strains and systematically characterized the mating system of I. hispidus for the first time. These findings provide scientific foundation for uncovering the life cycle and presents methods for creating new germplasms. Key points • First confirmation of a bipolar mating system in Inonotus hispidus • Single-spore isolates are multinucleate homokaryons • The significant growth rate differences provide method for homokaryon identification

Plant roots and their associated microbial symbionts impact carbon (C) and nutrient cycling in ecosystems, but estimates of the relative contributions of root‐ versus microbe‐derived dynamic inputs are highly uncertain. Roots release C into soil via exudation and turnover (i.e., root‐derived C), but also by allocating C to mycorrhizal fungal mycelia, which exude C and undergo turnover (i.e., mycelia‐derived C). Given that the relative contributions of root‐ and mycelia‐derived C inputs are unknown, a key knowledge gap lies in understanding not only the relative contributions of root‐ versus mycelia‐derived C inputs, but also the consequences of these fluxes on nutrient cycling. Using ingrowth cores and stable isotope analyses, we quantified root‐ and mycelia‐derived C inputs into the soil and their relative contributions to nitrogen (N) cycling in two ectomycorrhizal alpine forests, a 70‐year‐old spruce plantation and a 200‐year‐old spruce‐fir dominated forest, in western Sichuan, China. Across the two forests, extramatrical mycelia of ectomycorrhizal fungi accounted for up to two‐thirds of the new root C inputs into soil and ~80% of the stimulated N mineralization. Moreover, flux‐specific (per gram) mycelia‐derived C inputs stimulated multiple indices of soil N cycling to a greater degree than the flux‐specific root‐derived C inputs, accounting for ~70% of the stimulated N mineralization in both forests. Collectively, our findings indicate that the effects of mycorrhizal fungi on soil C and N cycling may exceed those of roots in alpine coniferous forests dominated by ectomycorrhizal fungi, highlighting the need to incorporate mycorrhizal fungal inputs into biogeochemical models for ecosystems. A plain language summary is available for this article. Plain Language Summary

In this work is presented a new category of self-growing, fibrous, natural composite materials with controlled physical properties that can be produced in large quantities and over wide areas, based on mycelium, the main body of fungi. Mycelia from two types of edible, medicinal fungi, Ganoderma lucidum and Pleurotus ostreatus , have been carefully cultivated, being fed by two bio-substrates: cellulose and cellulose/potato-dextrose, the second being easier to digest by mycelium due to presence of simple sugars in its composition. After specific growing times the mycelia have been processed in order to cease their growth. Depending on their feeding substrate, the final fibrous structures showed different relative concentrations in polysaccharides, lipids, proteins and chitin. Such differences are reflected as alterations in morphology and mechanical properties. The materials grown on cellulose contained more chitin and showed higher Young’s modulus and lower elongation than those grown on dextrose-containing substrates, indicating that the mycelium materials get stiffer when their feeding substrate is harder to digest. All the developed fibrous materials were hydrophobic with water contact angles higher than 120°. The possibility of tailoring mycelium materials’ properties by properly choosing their nutrient substrates paves the way for their use in various scale applications.

The individual role of biochar, compost and PGPR has been widely studied in increasing the productivity of plants by inducing resistance against phyto-pathogens. However, the knowledge on combined effect of biochar and PGPR on plant health and management of foliar pathogens is still at juvenile stage. The effect of green waste biochar (GWB) and wood biochar (WB), together with compost (Comp) and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR; Bacillus subtilis ) was examined on tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum L.) physiology and Alternaria solani development both in vivo and in vitro. Tomato plants were raised in potting mixture modified with only compost (Comp) at application rate of 20% (v/v), and along with WB and GWB at application rate of 3 and 6% (v/v), each separately, in combination with or without B. subtilis . In comparison with WB amended soil substrate, percentage disease index was significantly reduced in GWB amended treatments (Comp + 6%GWB and Comp + 3%GWB; 48.21 and 35.6%, respectively). Whereas, in the presence of B. subtilis disease suppression was also maximum (up to 80%) in the substrate containing GWB. Tomato plant growth and physiological parameters were significantly higher in treatment containing GWB (6%) alone as well as in combination with PGPR. Alternaria solani mycelial growth inhibition was less than 50% in comp, WB and GWB amended growth media, whereas B. subtilis induced maximum inhibition (55.75%). Conclusively, the variable impact of WB, GWB and subsequently their concentrations in the soil substrate was evident on early blight development and plant physiology. To our knowledge, this is the first report implying biochar in synergism with PGPR to hinder the early blight development in tomatoes.

Phlebopus portentosus is a favorite wild, edible mushroom in the tropical region of China and northern Thailand. P. portentosus is the only bolete in the Boletales order that has been commercially cultivated. Sclerotia produced by the mushroom are often found in its natural habitats and cultivated media. These sclerotia play a key role in its life cycle. However, the regularity and growth characteristics of the sclerotium are unknown. In this paper, the whole process of birth, growth, death and rebirth of the sclerotium of P. portentosus under natural and lab conditions is reported for the first time. Sclerotium formation in nature is due to environmental stress, such as drought or low temperature. The less rainfall, the more sclerotia are produced. It appears that a lower temperature can also initiate sclerotium formation; however, the relationship between sclerotium formation and temperature is not as clear as that between sclerotium formation and rainfall. Under artificial conditions, the sclerotium formation of P. portentosus is related to the fungus’ physiological maturation. The presence of sclerotia is always accompanied by the exudation of liquid droplets on the colony. The results of this study should provide a platform for research on the importance of sclerotium formation in the life cycle of P. portentosus.

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) exhibit unusual biocidal properties thanks to which they find a wide range of applications in diverse fields of science and industry. Numerous research studies have been devoted to the bactericidal properties of AgNPs while less attention has been focused on their fungicidal activity. Our studies were therefore oriented toward determining the impact of AgNPs characterized by different physicochemical properties on Fusarium avenaceum and Fusarium equiseti . The main hypothesis assumed that the fungicidal properties of AgNPs characterized by comparable morphology can be shaped by stabilizing agent molecules adsorbed on nanoparticle surfaces. Two types of AgNPs were prepared by the reduction of silver ions with sodium borohydride (SB) in the presence of trisodium citrate (TC) or cysteamine hydrochloride (CH). Both types of AgNPs exhibited a quasi-spherical shape. Citrate-stabilized AgNPs (TCSB-AgNPs) of an average size of 15 ± 4 nm were negatively charged. Smaller (12 ± 4 nm), cysteamine-capped AgNPs (CHSB-AgNPs) were characterized by a positive surface charge and higher silver ion release profile. The phytopathogens were exposed to the AgNPs in three doses equal to 2.5, 5 and 10 mg L −1 over 24 and 240 h. Additionally, the impact of silver ions delivered in the form of silver nitrate and the stabilizing agents of AgNPs on the fungi was also investigated. The response of phytopathogens to these treatments was evaluated by determining mycelial growth, sporulation and changes in the cell morphology. The results of our studies showed that CHSB-AgNPs, especially at a concentration of 10 mg L −1 , strongly limited the vegetative mycelium growth of both species for short and long treatment times. The cell imaging revealed that CHSB-AgNPs damaged the conidia membranes and penetrated into the cells, while TCSB-AgNPs were deposited on their surface. The fungistatic (lethal) effect was demonstrated only for silver ions at the highest concentration for the F. equiseti species in the 240 h treatment. The number of spores of both Fusarium species was significantly reduced independently of the type of silver compounds used. Generally, it was found that the positively charged CHSB-AgNPs were more fungicidal than negatively charged TCSB-AgNPs. Thereby, it was established that the stabilizing agents of AgNPs and surface charge play a crucial role in the shaping of their fungicidal properties.