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Incorporation rates of the enantiomers of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and its metabolite 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) into hair and nails were investigated after controlled administration. Fifteen subjects without MDMA use received two doses of 125 mg of MDMA. Hair, nail scrapings, and nail clippings were collected 9–77 days after the last administration (median 20 days). Hair samples were analyzed in segments of 1- to 2-cm length. After chiral derivatization with N-(2,4-dinitro-5-fluorophenyl)-L-valinamide, MDMA and MDA diastereomers were analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Highest concentrations in hair segments corresponded to the time of MDMA intake. They ranged from 101 to 3200 pg/mg and 71 to 860 pg/mg for R- and S-MDMA, and from 3.2 to 116 pg/mg and 4.4 to 108 pg/mg for R- and S-MDA, respectively. MDMA and MDA concentrations in nail scrapings and clippings were significantly lower than in hair samples. There was no significant difference between enantiomeric ratios of R/S-MDMA and R/S-MDA in hair and nail samples (medians 2.2–2.4 for MDMA and 0.85–0.95 for MDA). Metabolite ratios of MDA to MDMA were in the same range in hair and nail samples (medians 0.044–0.055). Our study demonstrates that administration of two representative doses of MDMA was detected in the hair segments corresponding to the time of intake based on average hair growth rates. MDMA was detected in all nail samples regardless of time passed after intake. Comparable R/S ratios in hair and nail samples may indicate that incorporation mechanisms into both matrices are comparable.

IntroductionMetabolomics produces vast quantities of data but determining which metabolites are the most relevant to the disease or disorder of interest can be challenging.ObjectivesThis study sought to demonstrate how behavioral models of psychiatric disorders can be combined with metabolomics research to overcome this limitation.MethodsWe designed a preclinical, untargeted metabolomics procedure, that focuses on the determination of central metabolites relevant to substance use disorders that are (a) associated with changes in behavior produced by acute drug exposure and (b) impacted by repeated drug exposure. Untargeted metabolomics analysis was carried out on liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry data obtained from 336 microdialysis samples. Samples were collected from the medial striatum of male Sprague-Dawley (N = 21) rats whilst behavioral data were simultaneously collected as part of a (±)-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)-induced behavioral sensitization experiment. Analysis was conducted by orthogonal partial least squares, where the Y variable was the behavioral data, and the X variables were the relative concentrations of the 737 detected features.ResultsMDMA and its derivatives, serotonin, and several dopamine/norepinephrine metabolites were the greatest predictors of acute MDMA-produced behavior. Subsequent univariate analyses showed that repeated MDMA exposure produced significant changes in MDMA metabolism, which may contribute to the increased abuse liability of the drug as a function of repeated exposure.ConclusionThese findings highlight how the inclusion of behavioral data can guide metabolomics data analysis and increase the relevance of the results to the phenotype of interest.

The neurotoxicity of “ecstasy” (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, MDMA) is thought to involve hepatic metabolism, though its real contribution is not completely understood. Most in vitro neurotoxicity studies concern isolated exposures of MDMA or its metabolites, at high concentrations, not considering their mixture, as expected in vivo. Therefore, our postulate is that combined deleterious effects of MDMA and its metabolites, at low micromolar concentrations that may be attained into the brain, may elicit neurotoxicity. Using human SH-SY5Y differentiated cells as dopaminergic neuronal model, we studied the neurotoxicity of MDMA and its MDMA metabolites α-methyldopamine and N -methyl-α-methyldopamine and their correspondent glutathione and N -acetylcysteine monoconjugates, under isolated exposure and as a mixture, at normothermic or hyperthermic conditions. The results showed that the mixture of MDMA and its metabolites was toxic to SH-SY5Y differentiated cells, an effect potentiated by hyperthermia and prevented by N -acetylcysteine. As a mixture, MDMA and its metabolites presented a different toxicity profile, compared to each compound alone, even at equimolar concentrations. Caspase 3 activation, increased reactive oxygen species production, and intracellular Ca 2+ raises were implicated in the toxic effect. The mixture increased intracellular glutathione levels by increasing its de novo synthesis. In conclusion, this study demonstrated, for the first time, that the mixture of MDMA and its metabolites, at low micromolar concentrations, which represents a more realistic approach of the in vivo scenario, elicited toxicity to human SH-SY5Y differentiated cells, thus constituting a new insight into the context of MDMA-related neurotoxicity.

3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, designated as \"Ecstasy\" if illicitly marketed in tablet form) induces significant decrements in neuronal serotonin (5-HT) markers in humans, nonhuman primates, and rats as a function of dosing and dosing regimen. In rats, MDMA-mediated effects are attributed, in part, to selective high-affinity transport of MDMA into 5-HT neurons by the 5-HT transporter (SERT), followed by extensive 5-HT release. To clarify whether SERT-selective effects of MDMA at human monoamine transporters can account for the reported MDMA-induced selective toxicity of serotonin neurons in primate brain. We investigated the interaction of [(3)H](+/-, RS)- (+, S)- and (-, R)-MDMA with the human SERT, dopamine (DA) transporter (DAT), and norepinephrine (NE) transporter (NET) in stably transfected human embryo kidney (HEK)-293 cells. The human DAT, NET, and SERT actively transported [(3)H]RS(+/-)-MDMA saturably, stereoselectively, and in a temperature-, concentration-, and transporter-dependent manner. MDMA exhibited the highest affinity for the NET>>SERT>or=DAT, the same rank order for MDMA inhibition of [(3)H]DA, [(3)H]NE, and [(3)H]5-HT transport and stimulated release of the [(3)H]monoamines, which differed from reports derived from rodent monoamine transporters. The extent of MDMA-induced release of 5-HT was higher compared with release of DA or NE. The affinity of MDMA for the human SERT in transfected cells does not clarify the apparent selective toxicity of MDMA for serotonin neurons, although conceivably, its higher efficacy for stimulating 5-HT release may be a distinguishing factor. The findings highlight the need to investigate MDMA effects in DAT-, SERT-, and NET-expressing neurons in the primate brain and the therapeutic potential of NET or DAT inhibitors, in addition to SERT-selective inhibitors, for alleviating the pharmacological effects of MDMA.

3,4-Methylenedioxy- N -methylamphetamine (MDMA) has been shown to be effective in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in numerous clinical trials. In the present study, we have characterized the neurochemical binding profiles of three MDMA-benzofuran analogues (1-(benzofuran-5-yl)-propan-2-amine, 5-APB; 1-(benzofuran-6-yl)- N -methylpropan-2-amine, 6-MAPB; 1-(benzofuran-5-yl)- N -methylpropan-2-amine, 5-MAPB) and one MDMA-indole analogue (1-(1 H -indol-5-yl)-2-methylamino-propan-1-ol, 5-IT). These compounds were screened as potential second-generation anti-PTSD drugs, against a battery of human and non-human receptors, transporters, and enzymes, and their potencies as 5-HT 2 receptor agonist and monoamine uptake inhibitors determined. All MDMA analogues displayed high binding affinities for 5-HT 2a,b,c and NE α2 receptors, as well as significant 5-HT, DA, and NE uptake inhibition. 5-APB revealed significant agonist activity at the 5-HT 2a,b,c receptors, while 6-MAPB, 5-MAPB, and 5-IT exhibited significant agonist activity at the 5-HT 2c receptor. There was a lack of correlation between the results of functional uptake and the monoamine transporter binding assay. MDMA analogues emerged as potent and selective monoamine oxidase A inhibitors. Based on 6-MAPB favorable pharmacological profile, it was further subjected to IC 50 determination for monoamine transporters. Overall, all MDMA analogues displayed higher monoamine receptor/transporter binding affinities and agonist activity at the 5-HT 2a,c receptors as compared to MDMA.

Oral fluid (OF) offers a noninvasive sample collection for drug testing. However, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy) in OF has not been adequately characterized in comparison to plasma. We administered oral low-dose (1.0 mg/kg) and high-dose (1.6 mg/kg) MDMA to 26 participants and collected simultaneous OF and plasma specimens for up to 143 h after dosing. We compared OF/plasma (OF/P) ratios, time of initial detection ( t first ), maximal concentrations ( C max ), time of peak concentrations ( t max ), time of last detection ( t last ), clearance, and 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA)-to-MDMA ratios over time. For OF MDMA and MDA, C max was higher, t last was later, and clearance was slower compared to plasma. For OF MDA only, t first was later compared to plasma. Median (range) OF/P ratios were 5.6 (0.1–52.3) for MDMA and 3.7 (0.7–24.3) for MDA. OF and plasma concentrations were weakly but significantly correlated (MDMA: R 2  = 0.438, MDA: R 2  = 0.197, p  < 0.0001). Median OF/P ratios were significantly higher following high dose administration: MDMA low = 5.2 (0.1–40.4), high = 6.0 (0.4–52.3, p  < 0.05); MDA low = 3.3 (0.7–17.1), high = 4.1 (0.9–24.3, p  < 0.001). There was a large inter-subject variation in OF/P ratios. The MDA/MDMA ratios in plasma were higher than those in OF ( p  < 0.001), and the MDA/MDMA ratios significantly increased over time in OF and plasma. The MDMA and MDA concentrations were higher in OF than in plasma. OF and plasma concentrations were correlated, but large inter-subject variability precludes the estimation of plasma concentrations from OF. Figure Oral fluid and plasma 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) concentrations in all simultaneously collected paired-positive specimens collected −0.25 to 143 h after 1.0 and 1.6 mg/kg oral MDMA administration to 26 adult participants

3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA; “ecstasy”) is a recreational hallucinogenic drug of abuse known to elicit neurotoxic properties. Hepatic formation of neurotoxic metabolites is thought to play a major role in MDMA-related neurotoxicity, though the mechanisms involved are still unclear. Here, we studied the neurotoxicity mechanisms and stability of MDMA and 6 of its major human metabolites, namely α-methyldopamine (α-MeDA) and N -methyl-α-methyldopamine (N-Me-α-MeDA) and their correspondent glutathione (GSH) and N -acetyl-cysteine (NAC) conjugates, under normothermic (37 °C) or hyperthermic conditions (40 °C), using cultured SH-SY5Y differentiated cells. We showed that MDMA metabolites exhibited toxicity to SH-SY5Y differentiated cells, being the GSH and NAC conjugates more toxic than their catecholic precursors and MDMA. Furthermore, whereas the toxicity of the catechol metabolites was potentiated by hyperthermia, NAC-conjugated metabolites revealed higher toxicity under normothermia and GSH-conjugated metabolites-induced toxicity was temperature-independent. Moreover, a time-dependent decrease in extracellular concentration of MDMA metabolites was observed, which was potentiated by hyperthermia. The antioxidant NAC significantly protected against the neurotoxic effects of MDMA metabolites. MDMA metabolites increased intracellular glutathione levels, though depletion in thiol content was observed in MDMA-exposed cells. Finally, the neurotoxic effects induced by the MDMA metabolite N-Me-α-MeDA involved caspase 3 activation. In conclusion, this study evaluated the stability of MDMA metabolites in vitro, and demonstrated that the catechol MDMA metabolites and their GSH and NAC conjugates, rather than MDMA itself, exhibited neurotoxic actions in SH-SY5Y differentiated cells, which were differently affected by hyperthermia, thus highlighting a major role for reactive metabolites and hyperthermia in MDMA’s neurotoxicity.

The majority of experimental and clinical studies on the pharmacology of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy) tend to focus on its action on 5-HT biochemistry and function. However, there is considerable evidence for MDMA having marked acute effects on dopamine release. Furthermore, while MDMA produces long-term effects on 5-HT neurones in most species examined, in mice its long-term effects appear to be restricted to the dopamine system. The objective of this review is to examine the actions of MDMA on dopamine biochemistry and function in mice, rats, guinea pigs, monkeys and humans. MDMA appears to produce a major release of dopamine from its nerve endings in all species investigated. This release plays a significant role in the expression of many of the behaviours that occur, including behavioural changes, alterations of the mental state in humans and the potentially life-threatening hyperthermia that can occur. While MDMA appears to be a selective 5-HT neurotoxin in most species examined (rats, guinea pigs and primates), it is a selective dopamine neurotoxin in mice. Selectivity may be a consequence of what neurotoxic metabolites are produced (which may depend on dosing schedules), their selectivity for monoamine nerve endings, or the endogenous free radical trapping ability of specific nerve endings, or both. We suggest more focus be made on the actions of MDMA on dopamine neurochemistry and function to provide a better understanding of the acute and long-term consequences of using this popular recreational drug.

MDMA is often taken recreationally with alcohol as combined-use. The objective was to determine MDMA postmortem redistribution (PMR) and corresponding effects in combined-style under different storage conditions. Steps were 20%-mixture of alcohol-water for initial 4 weeks to Group-A&B and intragastric infusions of MDMA (150 mg/kg) to Group-A later; in the same time, drinking pure water to Group-C&D first and then MDMA-fed to Group-C. The sacrificed rats were kept under different conditions for 10-d, during which the body fluids and tissues were collected on 15 continuous time-points and then detected. The MDMA concentrations were quite different along with postmortem interval (PMI) went by; the area under concentration-PMI curve significantly increased with combined-alcohol in comparison to MDMA alone, while that significantly decreased by lowering preservation temperature, allied with corresponding humidity. Combined-alcohol could exacerbate PMR of MDMA, as concentrations of combined-use rats’ samples were quite higher than mono-MDMA ones under any conditions, while different for body fluids and tissues; meanwhile lowering storage temperature could alleviate effects of alcohol. The study implies that in case of combined-use, the changes of concentrations are probably effected by some combined component, especially when come to identification of toxic level or even death.