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"National service Eritrea."
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The Eritrean National Service : servitude for 'the common good' and the youth exodus
\"The Eritrean National Service (ENS) lies at the core of the post-independence state, not only supplying its military, but affecting every aspect of the country's economy, its social services, its public sector and its politics. Over half the workforce are forcibly enrolled into it by the government, driving the country's youth to escape national service by seeking employment and asylum elsewhere. Yet how did the ENS, which began during the 1961-91 liberation struggle as part of the idea of the 'common good' - in which individual interests were sacrificed in pursuit of the grand scheme of independence and the country's development - degenerate into forced labour and a modern form of slavery? And why, when Eritrea no longer faces existential threat, does the government continue to demand such service from its citizens?\"--Back cover.
Book
Fiscal Sustainability: The Case of Eritrea
The paper examines fiscal sustainability issues for the case of Eritrea but has wider implications for addressing fiscal and debt sustainability. It begins with a formal definition and explanation of analytical sustainability indicators, followed by an assessment of the causes of fiscal deficits and their impact on the usual indicators of fiscal and external debt sustainability. The paper then goes beyond the usual analytical indicators by attempting to identify how and through which channels fiscal and other economic policies have affected the behavior of endogenous variables that in one way or another influence sustainability.
eBook
The health sector in Eritrea
The Health Sector in Eritrea is part of the World Bank Country Study series. These reports are published with the approval of the subject government to communicate the results of the Bank’s work on the economic and related conditions of member countries to governments and to the development community. In March 2001, the Ministry of Health of the Government of Eritrea launched a process to prepare a long-term health sector policy and strategic plan (HSPSP), with a focus on assuring equitable, quality, and sustainable health care. The Ministry outlined an open, participatory, three-step process for developing the HSPSP, with active participation from all partners in the health sector. Step One is the preparation of a health sector review carried out by the World Bank (this study), based on existing documentation provided by the Government and other sources. Step Two consists of conducting an in-depth health sector analysis among five sub-sector working groups—PHC, hospital reform, pharmaceuticals, human resource development, health financing—leading to Step Three, the preparation of a rationale for investments in the future development of the health sector. This study serves as the preliminary basis for further rounds of discussions and analyses among stakeholders to arrive at a strategic vision for the Eritrea health sector. It incorporates comments received from the Ministry of Health’s central agencies, Zoba (regional) health teams, external partners working in Eritrea, and the World Bank Eritrea Country Team.
eBook
‘Dreams don't come true in Eritrea’: anomie and family disintegration due to the structural militarisation of society
This article analyses contemporary Eritrea's acute crisis within the framework of the theory of anomie. It is based on the hypothesis that militarisation, forced labour, mass exodus and family disintegration can be interpreted as the consequences of two incompatible norm and value systems: the collectivist, nationalistic and militaristic worldview of the former liberation front and ruling party People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ), and the traditional cultural system of Eritrea's society. In 2002 the regime introduced an unlimited ‘development campaign’, thereby forcing large parts of the society to live as conscripts and perform unpaid labour. This has caused a mass exodus of young people and a rapid process of family disintegration. The article is based on empirical fieldwork and evaluates the ongoing developments which have led to rapid economic decline and the destabilisation of the entire fabric of society.
Journal Article
Hope Springs Eternal: Exploring the Early Settlement Experiences of Highly Educated Eritrean Refugees in the UK
Millions of people around the world have been forced to flee their homes for socio-economic and political reasons. This paper explores the early settlement experiences of highly educated Eritrean refugees in the UK. It is a phenomenological study informed by narrative interviews with 24 Eritrean refugees who gained a university degree in Eritrea, before migrating to the UK. The participants of this study are what Bauman (1996) calls ‘vagabonds’ who mainly left their country due to the lengthy national service, human rights abuses and/or the political situation of the country. They chose the UK, as their final destination, for its democratic principles and English language. Furthermore, they hoped to receive asylum and start their lives anew within a very short time. Hence, they were happy to reach the UK following a long, costly and risky route. However, contrary to their hope and expectations, some of the circumstances they find exposed them to humiliation, powerlessness, uncertainty, and other difficult conditions. Despite they did not face any overt discrimination, many felt humiliated for seeking asylum. In addition, delays in asylum decisions, cultural differences and the loneliness and exclusion they faced in the UK made them vulnerable. This further led to anxiety, psychological distress and integration paradox. The findings indicate that asylum seekers have less control over their life and future until their asylum application is accepted. This study contributes to a better understanding of refugees’ experiences from their stories.
Journal Article
The Resurgence of Religious and Ethnic Identities among Eritrean Refugees
This article explores processes of identity formation in Eritrean diaspora communities that have reverted to subnational patterns of identification grounded in the historical-political crises of their homeland. Refugees from Eritrea’s open-ended national service have ambivalent feelings towards their national identity: on the surface, they stress the cohesiveness of the Eritrean people, but in their daily lives they embrace ethnic or religious communities. I elaborate the dilemmas of identity formation in the transnational space between religious and ethnic affiliations and Eritrean nationalism. I analyse the expansion of ethnolinguistic and regional associations among diaspora communities and discuss their impact on identity formation. I link cleavages along ethnic and religious lines to collective memories and the government’s attempts to eradicate subnational identities. The study is based on long-term participant observation and semi-structured interviews with Eritreans in exile, and engages with relevant bodies of literature discussing identity formation in African and diaspora contexts.
In diesem Artikel werden Prozesse der Identitätsbildung in eritreischen Diasporagemeinden untersucht, die wieder verstärkt auf primordiale Identifikationsmuster zurückgreifen. Diese sind in den historischen und politischen Krisen ihres Heimatlandes begründet. Flüchtende vor dem unbefristeten Nationaldienst in Eritrea haben ambivalente Gefühle gegenüber ihrer nationalen Identität: oberflächlich betrachtet betonen sie den Zusammenhalt des eritreischen Volkes, aber in ihrem täglichen Leben stützen sie sich auf ethnische oder religiöse Gemeinschaften. Der Artikel zeigt die Dilemmata der Identitätsbildung im transnationalen Raum zwischen religiösen und ethnischen Zugehörigkeiten und eritreischem Nationalismus auf. Er analysiert die Ausbreitung ethno-linguistischer und regionaler Vereinigungen in Diasporagemeinden und diskutiert ihren Einfluss auf Identitätsbildung. Dabei stellt er eine Verbindung her zwischen ethnischen und religiösen Bruchlinien und den daraus resultierenden kollektiven Erinnerungen sowie den Versuchen der eritreischen Regierung, subnationale Identitäten auszulöschen. Diese Studie stützt sich auf langjährige teilnehmende Beobachtungen und semi-strukturierten Interviews mit Eritreerinnen und Eritreern im Exil sowie relevante Literatur zur Identitätsbildung in afrikanischen Kontexten und der Diaspora.
Journal Article
The Eritrean Military/National Service Programme: Slavery and the Notion of Persecution in Refugee Status Determination
Despite the overwhelming evidence of human rights violations within the Eritrean Military/National Service Programme (“MNSP”), adjudication of asylum applications made by Eritreans remains a challenge. Narrow interpretations of slavery have created obstacles for protection under the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (“1951 Refugee Convention”). This article discusses MST and Others, the latest Country Guidance case on Eritrea issued by the UK Upper Tribunal Immigration and Asylum Chamber (“UTIAC”), and also the lead case E-5022/2017 of the Swiss Federal Administrative Court (“FAC”), which to a large extent replicated the UTIAC’s approach. The article focuses on how slavery, servitude and forced labour under article 4 of the European Convention on Human Rights (“ECHR”) have been interpreted in the British and Swiss case-law. While both, the British and the Swiss Courts, had recourse to the European Court of Human Rights’ (“ECtHR”) interpretation of article 4(1) ECHR (the right not to be subjected to slavery or servitude), they refused the applicability of international criminal law notions to this provision, and thus to the concept of “persecution” in article 1A(2) of the 1951 Refugee Convention. In doing so, the UTIAC and the FAC set unreasonable requirements to satisfy article 4(1) ECHR. Due to the very limited case-law pertaining to slavery by the ECtHR, the ECHR does not offer an appropriate framework for examining asylum applications of victims of slavery. It is therefore suggested that slavery cases are considered against a wider legal framework, which involves the examination of concepts developed by international criminal law (“ICL”). ICL has indeed developed a significant body of jurisprudence on the interpretation of the international law concept of slavery and its application to contemporary situations. The article contrasts the British and Swiss Courts’ position to develop an interpretative approach that connects different areas of international law, including not only international refugee law and international human rights law (“IHRL”), but also ICL. If applied in line with the principle of systemic integration and according to the overall purposes of the 1951 Refugee Convention, this approach would yield consistent results. Ultimately, this article seeks to assist asylum decision-makers and practitioners in the interpretation and application of the refugee definition to asylum applications of persons from Eritrea.
Journal Article
Evaluation of ceftriaxone use in the medical ward of Halibet National Referral and teaching hospital in 2017 in Asmara, Eritrea: a cross sectional retrospective study
Background
Antibiotic resistance due to overuse of antimicrobials is an issue that has been of concern to many health institutions and society in general. Resistant infections have high impact in low income countries since they can’t afford more recent and expensive antibiotics. Studies that evaluate antibiotic use in hospitals are scarce in Eritrea. Ceftriaxone is commonly available in Halibet National Referral and teaching hospital (HNRTH). Resistance to this antibiotic would have a great impact on the hospital since there is no other available third generation cephalosporin or higher classes of antibiotics.
Method
A retrospective cross sectional design was used to evaluate the use of ceftriaxone in patients admitted to the medical ward in 2017. Clinical card number of inpatients who took ceftriaxone was extracted from the database of the Satellite Pharmacy Department of HNRTH and collected using a standardized data collection form. A descriptive analysis was employed and the Statistical package for social sciences (SPSS), version 20 was used for analysis.
Results
A total of 120 patients were taking ceftriaxone for various indications. There were 55 (50.5%) males and 54 (49.5%) females. 59.8% of the patients were treated in the range of 0–7 days. The mean age was 56 (SD: 20.7). On average patients were under treatment for 6 days. The proportion of patients taking ceftriaxone was 11.43% out of all admissions in the medical ward. One, two or three antibiotics were co-prescribed with ceftriaxone in 39.4%. The most commonly co-prescribed antibiotic was gentamycin, accounting for 16.4% of the co-administered antibiotics. The most common indications for ceftriaxone were pneumonia, sepsis, TB, and CHF. Ceftriaxone therapy was appropriate in 30 (27.5%) cases and 68 (62.4%) cases were inappropriate in any of the four parameters of assessment used.
Conclusion
Inappropriate use of ceftriaxone was found to be high in the hospital. This calls for establishment of hospital and national guidelines of antimicrobial treatment. Moreover drug restriction and antibiotic stewardship implementation in the hospital should be sought to prolong the lives of important drugs like ceftriaxone.
Journal Article
Breaking Free from Tradition: Women, National Service and Migration in Eritrea
Drawing from ethnographic research with five young women living in Asmara (Eritrea), this article investigates the intersection between migration aspirations and the desire for gender –and sexual – emancipation. While an increasing amount of studies focuses on the effect of migration on gender roles and sexuality, this article aims to understand the gendered nature of migration aspirations at their outset. After a brief review of the role of women in Eritrean history, I illustrate how limited social and political freedom across the country specifically impacts on young women’s education and life trajectories in Eritrea today. Then, through the stories of my research participants, I show that migration is a space not only to imagine alternative futures but also to conceive different forms of womanhood.
Journal Article
Forced labour in Eritrea
Using fieldwork data collected in Eritrea, Rome, Milan and Stockholm, and supplemented by human rights organisation reports and discussions with key informants in four cities in the UK, this article examines the extent to which the Eritrean national service and its concomitant Warsai-Yikaalo Development Campaign qualify as forced or compulsory labour as defined by the relevant international conventions.
Journal Article