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Pollination and Floral Ecology is the most comprehensive single-volume reference to all aspects of pollination biology--and the first fully up-to-date resource of its kind to appear in decades. This beautifully illustrated book describes how flowers use colors, shapes, and scents to advertise themselves; how they offer pollen and nectar as rewards; and how they share complex interactions with beetles, birds, bats, bees, and other creatures. The ecology of these interactions is covered in depth, including the timing and patterning of flowering, competition among flowering plants to attract certain visitors and deter others, and the many ways plants and animals can cheat each other.

Objective Apis mellifera is a species of honeybee that has been introduced around the world as an industrial beekeeping species. Recently, urban beekeeping has attracted attention as a means of ecosystem protection and urban greening. This study aimed to investigate nectar sources of urban beekeeping in Kōtō-ku, Tokyo using pollen DNA metabarcoding. Results We extracted DNA from pollen collected by the honeybees of a local urban beekeeping operation. DNA metabarcoding analysis was carried out by sequencing a part of the rbc L region of the chloroplast genome. A total of 31 samples collected between mid-March, 2018 and mid-October, 2018 yielded 54 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) comprising 14 families, 32 genera, and 8 species. Whereas 5 OTUs were profiled throughout all seasons, 38 OTUs were season-specific (spring, summer, or autumn). Therefore, we were able to infer seasonal nectar sources for the beekeeping operation at the family or genus level, as well as at the species level to a lesser extent. Our pollen-sampling strategy was effective for profiling season-specific nectar sources, with the exception of a few anomalies that can be accounted for by out-of-season flowering associated with artificial gardening and/or pollen accumulation over multiple seasons.

IntroductionThe steep population decline of the emblematic monarch butterfly is caused mainly by the reduction of food sources for caterpillars and adults, as well as disturbance in its overwintering forests. Although feeding at the overwintering sites in Mexico has long been considered unimportant, observations show that butterflies feed inside and outside of their forests on sunny days. Nectaring close to the hibernation colonies may be relevant for their conservation, as their reserves decline faster in disturbed forests. However, there are no systematic studies on nectar sources in the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve, Michoacán, Mexico.AimsIn this study, we identified and quantified the main plant species visited by butterflies for nectaring in the Reserve.MethodsWe collected systematic observational data on the flora and butterfly visits in three sanctuaries, around colonies formed between February and March of the 2019–2020 season.ResultsButterflies fed on 29 plant species from 10 families. Most had white, yellow or blue flowers, were somewhat synanthropic and had their main flowering season in winter. The most visited species were Salvia mexicana and S. plurispicata, which were also the most abundant. By individual plant, Prunus serotina, Crataegus mexicana, Buddleja sessiliflora, Verbesina oncophora and Roldana albonervia were the most visited.Discussion/Implications for insect conservationThe results point to possible interventions in support of the butterflies. The visited species are generally easy to encourage or cultivate and could be promoted in the surrounding agricultural areas.

Aim: To study bee friendly plant species, nutritional sources, flowering season, and the dynamic relationship between urban flora and native bee species in a centrally located urban green space in Bengaluru, India. Methodology: Flowers of different plant species visited by bees were observed and recorded from September 2018 to August 2019. Based on the foraging pattern of visiting bees, the plants were classified into nectar or pollen or both nectar and pollen species. The monthly abundance of nutritional resources was estimated based on the floral phenology. Results: A total of 51 plant species, from 25 families, were visited by bees for foraging. Polylectic social bees namely Apis florea and Tetragonula iridipennis, visited 45 and 39 plant species, and two species of solitary bees, namely Amigella cingulate and Xylocopa violacea, visited 26 and 23 plant species, respectively. The urban green landscape was dominated by a variety of ornamental plants (49%) and also included vegetables (17.6%), fruit trees (13.7%), and weeds (19.6%). Plants that served as a source of both nectar and pollen (60.8%) were predominant over those that supplied either nectar alone (24.5%) or pollen alone (13.7%). Moreover, 72% of the species bloomed all the year round, which meant that floral resources were available to bees throughout the year. Interpretation: The study underscores the role of bee friendly floral diversity in the urban green spaces in protection and conservation of bee diversity. Efficient management of urban green spaces can provide dynamic habitat for bee conservation and can prevent the loss of biodiversity.

The use of flowering field margins is often proposed as a method to support biological control in agro-ecosystems. In addition to beneficial insects, many herbivores depend on floral food as well. The indiscriminate use of flowering species in field margins can therefore lead to higher pest numbers. Based on results from field observations and laboratory experiments we assessed risks as well as benefits associated with the provision of nectar plants in field margins, using Brussels sprouts as a model system. Results show that Brussels sprouts bordered by nectar plants suitable for the cabbage white Pieris rapae L., suffered higher infestation levels by this herbivore. In contrast, nectar plants providing accessible nectar for the diamondback moth Plutella xylostella L., did not raise densities of P. xylostella larvae in the Brassica crop. Margins with Anethum graveolens L., selected on the basis of its suitability as nectar plant for parasitoids, significantly increased the number of adult Diadegma semiclausum Hellén in the crop. This didn't translate into enhanced parasitism rates, as parasitism of P. xylostella by D. semiclausum exceeded 65 % in all treatments, irrespective of the plants in the field margin. Our findings emphasize the importance of taking a multitrophic approach when choosing flowering field margin plants for biocontrol or other ecosystem services.

Background Habitat quality is one main trigger for the persistence of butterflies. The effects of the influencing biotic and abiotic factors may be enhanced by the challenging conditions in high-alpine environments. To better our knowledge in this field, we performed a mark-release-recapture study with Boloria pales in the Southern Carpathians . Methods We analysed population structure, movement and foraging behaviour to investigate special adaptations to the alpine environment and to reveal differences between sexes. We compared these aspects in one sector with and one sector without grazing to address the effects of grazing intensity on habitat quality. Results We observed “soft” protandry, in which only a small number of males appeared before females, and an extended emergence of individuals over the observed flight period, dividing the population’s age structure into three phases; both observations are considered adaptations to high mountain environments. Although both sexes were mostly sedentary, movement differences between them were obvious. Males flew larger distances than females and were more flight-active. This might explain the dimorphism in foraging behaviour: males preferred nectar sources of Asteraceae, females Caprifoliaceae. Transition from the grazed to the ungrazed sector was only observed for males and not for females, but the population density was higher and the flight distances of the individuals were significantly longer on the grazed sector compared with the ungrazed one. Conclusion Soft protandry, an extended emergence of the individuals and an adapted behavioural dimorphism between sexes render to represent a good adaptation of B. pales to the harsh environmental conditions of high mountain ecosystems. However, land-use intensity apparently has severe influence on population densities and movement behaviour. To protect B. pales and other high-alpine species from the negative consequences of overgrazing, areas without or just light grazing are needed.

For terrestrial species, habitat is frequently defined as physical patches of a certain land cover type in a matrix of non-habitat. However, the appropriate definition of habitat quality requires more detailed information on the resources and conditions that are necessary for the maintenance of the species (‘resource-based habitat approach’). In arthropods, their life cycle comprises several clearly differentiated stages that may depend on different resources and conditions for successful development; in turn, males and females may have different habitat requirements due to their different behaviours. Here we examine the habitat quality for males, females and eggs of the butterfly Plebejus argus in a continuous sand dune landscape in southern Spain. For both sexes, abundance was related to host plant density (negatively) and distance to heathland vegetation (a surrogate for higher water availability; negatively for males and hump-shaped for females); and, for males only, positively with flower presence. Egg abundance was positively related to mutualistic ant frequency and flower presence, and negatively to distance to heathland. Hence, female and male adults and eggs of P. argus partly differed in their dependence on resources and conditions, although distance to wetter areas of heathland was the common variable for all models. This suggests that soil humidity is the key variable for P. argus habitat quality, probably through both direct effects on individuals and indirect effects on interacting species (mutualistic ants and nectar sources). As a result, we found a high spatial congruence in habitat quality between males and females, and a moderate congruence between adults and eggs.

Bees and their host flower populations were studied by identifying pollen to species or genus, from trap nests where bees were reared. Rare plant species in bee diets, and disturbance regimes, have not previously been researched and are emphasized here. Two focal bee groups with one species each (Megachilidae and Apidae) were studied in a 500,000-ha tropical reserve in the Yucatán Peninsula nine complete years. The number of rare or major pollen species in nests had no statistical correlation; thus, rare pollen analysis complements study of major brood provisions. We found most nests (87 % Megachile zaptlana, 93 % Centris analis) contained rare pollen; only 12 % of the 438 nests contained major pollen alone. Rare pollen sometimes indicated an energy source rather than a scarce protein resource. Trichome nectar of Cydista, along with Ipomoea and Caesalpinia, were nectar sources. Malpighiaceae, despite lacking nectar, often provided the complete Centris diet. Considering rare pollen, only Centris responded to drought, or competition from immigrant honeybees. Neither bee responded to hurricanes. Drought years coincided with low bee populations; Centris nests contained more rare species then. After feral Africanized honeybees colonized, Centris had more major species and fewer rare. Some herbarium vouchers from the study area contained exotic pollen, demonstrating in situ floral contamination and ecological generalization by bees, but this rarely occurred in plants found among the bee diets. Megachile and Centris responded differently to competition and resource scarcity, and plausibly evolved under different disturbance regimes, yet appeared well adapted to hurricane disturbance.

Larra bicolor (F.) (Hymenoptera: Sphecidae) is an introduced biological control agent of pest Scapteriscus mole crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae) in northern Florida. The pests are of southern South American origin. Larra bicolor is widespread in South America; the imported stock is from Bolivia. Its adults seem to require nectar sources. In South America, Puerto Rico (where it was also introduced from Brazil), and southern Florida (a separate introduction from Puerto Rico), the neotropical wildflower Spermacoce verticillata L. (Rubiaceae) has been observed to be a favored nectar source. In northern Florida (29°N) this wildflower is uncommon, freezes to the ground at first winter frost, and does not flower again until April-May. Nevertheless, where it has been planted in northern Florida, the wasps feed on it throughout the warmer months. Wasps were observed to feed at nectaries of 10 other plant species in northern Florida. Four of these other plants were compared experimentally with S. verticillata, but all received fewer visits from the wasps. Known disadvantages to the use of S. verticillata to augment L. bicolor are that it is not native to Florida, and that it grows vigorously in full sun when its roots are not immersed in water. It has been reported as a minor weed in southern Florida. However, it is the best alternative to attract L. bicolor to places where mole cricket control is needed.

The utilisation of two metre field margins by butterflies was studied at three farms in Essex, south east England between 1997 and 2000. The aim of the study was to establish whether field margins, as set up and managed under Countryside Stewardship Scheme guidelines, were beneficial to common farmland butterflies. Thirteen two metre margins (total length 4478 m) and three sections with no margin (total length 656 m) were monitored over the 4 year period using the transect method. Significantly more Maniola jurtina, Thymelicus sylvestris and Thymelicus lineola were seen on the two metre margins than on the control sections, but there was a significant reduction in abundance of Thymelicus sylvestris, Thymelicus lineola and Ochlodes venata on the margins over the 4 year study period. Only the abundance of Pyronia tithonus increased significantly on the two metre margins over that period.