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This is the first time that indigenous Papuan administrators share with an international public their experiences governing their country. These administrators were the brokers of development. After graduating from the School for Indigenous Administrators (OSIBA) they served in the Dutch administration until 1962. The period 1962-1969 stands out as turbulent and dangerous, and for many curtailed their professional careers. These administrators' having been in active service until their retirement in the early 1990s allows for a complete recounting of political and administrative transformations under the Indonesian governance of Irian Jaya/Papua. This book brings together 17 oral histories of the everyday life of Papuan civil servants, including their relationships with superiors and colleagues, the murder of a Dutch administrator, their translation of 'development' to the Papuan people, the organization of their first democratic institutions, and the actual political and economic conditions leading up to the so-called Act of Free Choice. Finally, they share their experiences in the UNTEA and Indonesian government organization. Leontine Visser is Professor of Development Anthropology at Wageningen University. Her research focuses on governance and natural resources management in eastern Indonesia.

Bronislaw Malinowski's path-breaking research in the Trobriand Islands shaped much of modern anthropology's disciplinary paradigm.Yet many conundrums remain.For example, Malinowski asserted that  baloma  spirits of the dead were responsible for procreation but had limited influence on their living descendants in magic and other matters, claims.

Environmental change is rapidly accelerating, and many species will need to adapt to survive 1 . Ensuring that protected areas cover populations across a broad range of environmental conditions could safeguard the processes that lead to such adaptations 1 – 3 . However, international conservation policies have largely neglected these considerations when setting targets for the expansion of protected areas 4 . Here we show that—of 19,937 vertebrate species globally 5 – 8 —the representation of environmental conditions across their habitats in protected areas (hereafter, niche representation) is inadequate for 4,836 (93.1%) amphibian, 8,653 (89.5%) bird and 4,608 (90.9%) terrestrial mammal species. Expanding existing protected areas to cover these gaps would encompass 33.8% of the total land surface—exceeding the current target of 17% that has been adopted by governments. Priority locations for expanding the system of protected areas to improve niche representation occur in global biodiversity hotspots 9 , including Colombia, Papua New Guinea, South Africa and southwest China, as well as across most of the major land masses of the Earth. Conversely, we also show that planning for the expansion of protected areas without explicitly considering environmental conditions would marginally reduce the land area required to 30.7%, but that this would lead to inadequate niche representation for 7,798 (39.1%) species. As the governments of the world prepare to renegotiate global conservation targets, policymakers have the opportunity to help to maintain the adaptive potential of species by considering niche representation within protected areas 1 , 2 . Protected areas would need to expand to 33.8% of the total land surface to adequately represent environmental conditions across the habitats of amphibians, birds and terrestrial mammals, far exceeding the current 17% target.

Taxation is a major source of revenue for every government of countries around the world. In which the government can be able to generate revenue to finance its expenditure on funding infrastructures and providing basic goods and services to the people in the economy.  Fluctuation in the rates of taxes either increases or decreases occurred because the government is attempting to either generate government revenue or to control the economic growth. The main objective of the study was to measure the effect of income tax on the public. The research approach used in this study was the quantitative approach. A convenience sampling technique was used for this study. The sample size is 50. When there is inflation tax rates increase and there are negative effects that come along with it and were faced by the taxpayers since the amount of money to be paid for as tax increases. Therefore in this study, we are going to look at the negativities caused by increased tax rates and were faced by the taxpayers. The study recommends that the government has to apply a strategic plan to reduce the negative impact of taxation.

In Australian and New Zealand waters, current knowledge on white shark ( Carcharodon carcharias ) movement ecology is based on individual tracking studies using relatively small numbers of tags. These studies describe a species that occupies highly variable and complex habitats. However, uncertainty remains as to whether the proposed movement patterns are representative of the wider population. Here, we tagged 103 immature Australasian white sharks (147–350 cm fork length) with both acoustic and satellite transmitters to expand our current knowledge of population linkages, spatiotemporal dynamics and coastal habitats. Eighty-three sharks provided useable data. Based on individual tracking periods of up to 5 years and a total of 2,865 days of tracking data, we were able to characterise complex movement patterns over ~45° of latitude and ~72° of longitude and distinguish regular/recurrent patterns from occasional/exceptional migration events. Shark movements ranged from Papua New Guinea to sub-Antarctic waters and to Western Australia, highlighting connectivity across their entire Australasian range. Results over the 12-year study period yielded a comprehensive characterisation of the movement ecology of immature Australasian white sharks across multiple spatial scales and substantially expanded the body of knowledge available for population assessment and management.

Production of commercial agricultural commodities for domestic and foreign markets is increasingly driving land clearing in tropical regions, creating links and feedback effects between geographically separated consumption and production locations. Such teleconnections are commonly studied through calculating consumption footprints and quantifying environmental impacts embodied in trade flows, e.g., virtual water and land, biomass, or greenhouse gas emissions. The extent to which land-use change (LUC) and associated carbon emissions are embodied in the production and export of agricultural commodities has been less studied. Here we quantify tropical deforestation area and carbon emissions from LUC induced by the production and the export of four commodities (beef, soybeans, palm oil, and wood products) in seven countries with high deforestation rates (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Papua New Guinea). We show that in the period 2000-2011, the production of the four analyzed commodities in our seven case countries was responsible for 40% of total tropical deforestation and resulting carbon losses. Over a third of these impacts was embodied in exports in 2011, up from a fifth in 2000. This trend highlights the growing influence of global markets in deforestation dynamics. Main flows of embodied LUC are Latin American beef and soybean exports to markets in Europe, China, the former Soviet bloc, the Middle East and Northern Africa, whereas embodied emission flows are dominated by Southeast Asian exports of palm oil and wood products to consumers in China, India and the rest of Asia, as well as to the European Union. Our findings illustrate the growing role that global consumers play in tropical LUC trajectories and highlight the need for demand-side policies covering whole supply chains. We also discuss the limitations of such demand-side measures and call for a combination of supply- and demand-side policies to effectively limit tropical deforestation, along with research into the interactions of different types of policy interventions.

The positive Ti isotope versus SiO2‐content correlation in igneous rocks reflects the fractional crystallization of Ti‐bearing oxide minerals. However, Ti isotope variations of subduction‐related igneous rocks indicate that the Ti isotope compositions of their mantle sources are heterogeneous and additional mineral phases may promote Ti isotope fractionation. We have determined the Ti isotope composition of well‐characterized subduction‐related basalts, andesites and boninites. Samples from the Solomon Islands, the Troodos ophiolite in Cyprus, and Cape Vogel in Papua New Guinea show small but resolvable variations that may be related to differences in their mantle sources. Specifically, the δ49Ti of boninites (+0.109‰ to +0.168‰) is slightly higher than that of tholeiites (−0.027‰ to +0.111‰) from the same localities (Troodos in Cyprus and Cape Vogel in Papua New Guinea). Modeling suggests the partial melting of progressively depleted mantle sources where residual Cr‐spinel plays a greater role in controlling the Ti budget during partial melting. More pronounced variations in δ49Ti are clearly linked to the fractional crystallization of Ti‐oxides: Samples from Rabaul Volcanic Complex (New Britain, Papua New Guinea) show increasing δ49Ti (up to +0.373‰) with increasing Ti/V and decreasing Dy/Yb. Fractional crystallization models suggest that oxide minerals and amphibole are needed to sufficiently increase the δ49Ti of these magmas. Our study highlights that the combination of diagnostic trace element patterns and Ti isotope compositions in subduction‐related igneous rocks can be a powerful tool to constrain petrogenetic processes and to discriminate between different crystallizing mineral phases. Plain Language Summary Titanium isotope data obtained for basalts from various volcanic arc‐related settings show how the different minerals involved in their magmatic evolution influence their Titanium isotope composition. Coupled with trace element concentration data, magmatic processes are revealed that operate on either a large scale, such as along the arc in the 10 km range, or as very specific magma chamber processes. Key Points Mass‐dependent Titanium isotope variations in arc basalts originate from fractional crystallization as well as partial melting Trace element and isotope modeling strongly suggest that amphibole fractionates Ti isotopes in addition to magnetite or ilmenite

Chemical and physical responses of groundwater to seismicity have been documented for thousands of years. Among the waves produced by earthquakes, Rayleigh waves can spread to great distances and produce hydrogeological perturbations in response to their passage. In this work, the groundwater level, which was continuously recorded in a monitoring well in Central Italy between July 2014 and December 2019, exhibited evident responses to dynamic crustal stress. In detail, 18 sharp variations of the groundwater level due to worldwide M w  ≥ 6.5 earthquakes were observed. Apart from earthquakes that occurred in Papua New Guinea and those with a hypocentral depth > 150 km, all far away M w  ≥ 7.6 earthquakes produced impulsive oscillations of groundwater. As the earthquake magnitude decreased, only some earthquakes with 6.5 ≤ M w  < 7.6 caused groundwater level perturbations, depending on the data acquisition frequency and epicentral distance from the monitoring well. A clear correlation between earthquake distance and magnitude in hydrogeological responses was found. Our results shed light on the hydrosensitivity of the study site and on the characteristics of fractured aquifer systems. Detecting the water table variations induced by distant earthquakes is another step towards a correct identification of (preseismic) hydrogeological changes due to near-field seismicity.

Longitudinal tracking of individual Plasmodium falciparum strains in multi-clonal infections is essential for investigating infection dynamics of malaria. The traditional genotyping techniques did not permit tracking changes in individual clone density during persistent natural infections. Amplicon deep sequencing (Amp-Seq) offers a tool to address this knowledge gap. The sensitivity of Amp-Seq for relative quantification of clones was investigated using three molecular markers, ama 1 -D2, ama1 -D3, and cpmp . Amp-Seq and length-polymorphism based genotyping were compared for their performance in following minority clones in longitudinal samples from Papua New Guinea. Amp-Seq markers were superior to length-polymorphic marker msp 2 in detecting minority clones (sensitivity Amp-Seq: 95%, msp2: 85%). Multiplicity of infection (MOI) by Amp-Seq was 2.32 versus 1.73 for msp2 . The higher sensitivity had no effect on estimates of force of infection because missed minority clones were detected in preceding or succeeding bleeds. Individual clone densities were tracked longitudinally by Amp-Seq despite MOI > 1, thus providing an additional parameter for investigating malaria infection dynamics. Amp-Seq based genotyping of longitudinal samples improves detection of minority clones and estimates of MOI. Amp-Seq permits tracking of clone density over time to study clone competition or the dynamics of specific, i.e. resistance-associated genotypes.

Replenishing soil nutrient particularly total nitrogen (TN) and available phosphorus (P) is important to sustain soil health for food production. Organic amendments such as compost and biochar are commonly applied to improve soil nutrient retention especially N and P. In farms, biochar is usually applied once followed by applying other organic amendment applied in their full rates. Both form and rate of organic amendments can affect soil nutrient concentrations particularly in short term. This study aimed to examine the effects of compost and mixture of compost with biochar (both at full rates) on soil nutrient concentrations in short term. A randomised complete block filed experiment with eight replicates was used for this study. The effects of biochar (5 t/ha) only, compost (at the rates of 10 t/ha, 25 t/ha and 35 t/ha) and biochar mixed with compost (5 t/ha and 10 t/ha, respectively) on soil nutrient concentrations compared with control were explored in a corn field. Compost treatment at the rate of 35 t/ha had significantly higher TN, available P, calcium (Ca) and iron (Fe) compared with other treatments and control. Soil potassium (K) levels remained unchanged among all treatments. Biochar only treatment had significantly higher available P and Ca concentrations compared with biochar mixed with compost treatment. Compost application at higher rate (35 t/ha) proved best practice to significantly increase TN and available P concentrations in short term. Significantly higher available P concentration in biochar only treatment compared with the biochar mixed with compost treatment could have been associated with stimulation of P immobilisation when biochar was mixed with compost. Our results indicated that the form and rate of organic amendments in short term cropping systems are important to be considered while applying to a volcanic soil to ensure N and P availability for plants are not compromised.