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Salinity is a major abiotic stress that disrupts ion balance, water uptake, and plant metabolism, ultimately reducing growth and productivity. Climate change, induced evaporation, and altered rainfall patterns are accelerating salinization, posing a challenge to soilless systems where water quality directly impacts nutrient availability. Basil, a salt-sensitive and high-value aromatic herb, shows marked physiological decline under salinity, including reduced water and nutrient uptake, impaired photosynthetic activity, disruption of ion balance, and increased oxidative stress. Here, we evaluated the potential of biostimulants—amino acids, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), fulvic acid, chitosan, and vermicompost—to alleviate salt-induced stress in basil grown with 50 mM NaCl in a floating culture system. Salt stress reduced leaf yield by 41.6%, stomatal conductance by 65.7%, and antioxidant enzyme activities. Among the biostimulants, PGPR and vermicompost were the most effective, increasing yield by over 90% compared to salt-stressed plants. These treatments enhanced antioxidant enzyme activities (APX, CAT, GR, SOD), increased phenolics, flavonoids, and vitamin C, and reduced lipid peroxidation (up to 74.3% lower MDA). Moderate improvements were observed with amino acids, AMF, and chitosan, while fulvic acid showed limited effectiveness. Overall, PGPR and vermicompost strengthened basil’s resilience to salinity by reducing oxidative stress and enhancing physiological performance. These findings support their use as sustainable tools in managing saline conditions. Future studies should evaluate the biostimulant effectiveness under higher salinity and poor-quality water, and assess their impact on different basil cultivars, including essential oil and aroma-related traits.

Horticulture in controlled environments has been increasingly used to tackle limitations on crop production. As a crucial environmental factor, light regulate plant growth and metabolism. In the present study, basil plants were subjected to different light durations and intensities considering constant daily light integral (DLI). The lighting environment included 200, 300, and 400 µmol m − 2 s − 1 intensities for 18, 12, and 9 h, respectively. DLI amounted to 12.96 mol m − 2 d − 1 among all light treatments (LI200 for 18 h, LI300 for 12 h, and LI400 for 9 h). Half of the plants under each light treatment were exposed to 30 µmol m − 2 s − 1 of far-red light. The results indicated the general negative impact of LI400/9 on the growth of basils. Exposure to far-red light hurt the growth of the shoot, while it enhanced stem and petiole elongation. This effect was due to higher gibberellin accumulation, which resulted in shade avoidance responses. Exposure to far-red light also reduced anthocyanin and flavonoid contents, as two important nutritional components. Soluble carbohydrates increased, while storage carbohydrates decreased by increasing lighting duration/decreasing light intensity or by far-red light inclusion. The lowest antioxidant activity was detected in LI400/9. In the LI200/18, the highest level of auxin and the lowest level of cytokinin were detected, while the LI300/12 exhibited the highest level of gibberellin hormone. Low light intensity and long photoperiod enhanced plant biomass and phytochemical production and are recommended for basil production in controlled environments.

Food safety and security are now among the most urgent problems to be resolved as the world’s population continues to grow. Intensive agriculture is required to meet the demands of a growing population and guarantee greater agricultural yield. Chemical pesticides and fertilizers are an essential part of intensive farming. Their extensive use accelerates the depletion of other important and minor nutrients, resulting in poor soil fertility and nutritional imbalance. There are serious health and environmental hazards associated with several of these hazardous agricultural chemicals. In context, for the first time, this study represents an innovative experiment exploring the impact of exogenously applied k-carrageenan on plant growth, physiological parameters, phytochemical content, macronutrients, and essential oil percentage in Ocimum basilicum plants. The investigation assessed the effect of varying k-carrageenan levels; 0.30, 0.60, 0.90, and 1.20 mM versus untreated control. The findings revealed that all k-carrageenan treatments significantly enhanced growth indicators compared to the control. The phytochemical analysis demonstrated that foliar application of k-carrageenan, particularly at 1.20 mM, significantly enhanced total chlorophyll, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and total carbohydrate and essential oil percentage compared to the untreated control. O. basilicum essential oils show rich, nuanced flavors with higher levels of Methyl cinnamate, Camphor, trans-methyl cinnamate, Eucalyptol, Linalool, and β-Caryophyllene among treatments. Treatment effects were also observed in the macroelements content of Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). k-carrageenan-induced alterations were noted in the contents of essential oil compounds. These results suggest that k-carrageenan can be a growth-promoting agent and significantly enhance essential oil yield, particularly in O. basilicum plants.

Background Basil ( Ocimum basilicum L.), a globally significant medicinal plant of the Lamiaceae family, contains valuable volatile oils, polyphenols, and flavonoids with wide applications in food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. This study evaluated salinity stress responses across 13 basil cultivars, quantifying growth, morphological, and biochemical changes under 90 mM NaCl. Results Salinity stress (90 mM NaCl) significantly reduced shoot biomass across all cultivars ( p  < 0.01), with Variegated showing maximum reduction (59.8%) versus Bush/Light Purple cultivars (31%). Essential oil content increased in all cultivars except Dark Opal under 90 mM NaCl ( p  = 0.003), with Lettuce showing a 12-fold rise (0.05–0.60% v/w), though yield (mL/plant) declined in most cultivars due to biomass reduction. Cluster analysis revealed genotype-specific tolerance mechanisms: Purple cultivars demonstrated specify osmotic adjustment through 58% higher proline accumulation and 33% lower MDA levels than sensitive genotypes. Conclusions Bush and Light Purple exhibited superior salt tolerance (31% biomass reduction), ideal for cultivation in saline soils, while Lettuce and Afghan showed enhanced essential oil production (up to 12-fold increase) under 90 mM NaCl, offering potential for phytochemical extraction. The observed diversity in stress responses provides valuable genetic resources for breeding climate-resilient cultivars, supporting sustainable medicinal plant production.

Basil ( Ocimum L.) is an important essential oil crop, medicinal plant, and culinary herb, belonging to the Lamiaceae family. It has extensive nutritional and therapeutic benefits, making it valuable in culinary and medicinal applications. Hence, in this study, we aimed to induce basil’s nutritive and biological value. To this end, this study evaluates the potential of the plant growth-promoting Pseudomonas JP0825, isolated from the Jazan region, KSA, as a biopriming agent to improve the growth, nutritional quality, and bioactive compound profile of sweet ( Ocimum basilicum L.) and American ( Ocimum americanum L.) basil. The molecular identification of Pseudomonas JP0825 confirmed its phylogenetic relationship with other beneficial Pseudomonas species. Our findings revealed significant increases in photosynthetic pigments, biomass, and proximate composition, particularly in sweet basil, following inoculation. Elevated levels of vitamins, amino acids, and organic and fatty acids were observed, alongside enhanced secondary metabolites like phenolics and flavonoids, correlated with enhanced antioxidant and antimicrobial activity. The antioxidant properties of treated basil improved significantly, as indicated by increased FRAP and ABTS activities. Furthermore, Pseudomonas JP0825 demonstrated an ability to boost the antimicrobial activity against various pathogenic bacteria and fungi, including Staphylococcus epidermidis , Enterococcus faecalis , Salmonella typhimurium , and Aspergillus flavus . These findings highlight the strain’s potential as a sustainable alternative to chemical inputs, offering improvements in crop quality and resilience, and contributing to global food security efforts.

Summary Many aromatic plants, such as spearmint, produce valuable essential oils in specialized structures called peltate glandular trichomes (PGTs). Understanding the regulatory mechanisms behind the production of these important secondary metabolites will help design new approaches to engineer them. Here, we identified a PGT‐specific R2R3‐MYB gene, MsMYB, from comparative RNA‐Seq data of spearmint and functionally characterized it. Analysis of MsMYB‐RNAi transgenic lines showed increased levels of monoterpenes, and MsMYB‐overexpressing lines exhibited decreased levels of monoterpenes. These results suggest that MsMYB is a novel negative regulator of monoterpene biosynthesis. Ectopic expression of MsMYB, in sweet basil and tobacco, perturbed sesquiterpene‐ and diterpene‐derived metabolite production. In addition, we found that MsMYB binds to cis‐elements of MsGPPS.LSU and suppresses its expression. Phylogenetic analysis placed MsMYB in subgroup 7 of R2R3‐MYBs whose members govern phenylpropanoid pathway and are regulated by miR858. Analysis of transgenic lines showed that MsMYB is more specific to terpene biosynthesis as it did not affect metabolites derived from phenylpropanoid pathway. Further, our results indicate that MsMYB is probably not regulated by miR858, like other members of subgroup 7.

Background Drought and salinity are among the most critical abiotic stresses affecting crops worldwide. Within this context, melatonin has emerged as a multifunctional signaling molecule that mitigates stress and promotes growth in various plant species. This study aimed to evaluate the physiological and biochemical responses of Ocimum basilicum plants cultivated under hydroponic conditions and exposed to salt stress, following pre-harvest treatment with melatonin. Basil seedlings were immersed in melatonin solutions at concentrations ranging from 0 to 100 μM for 48 hours and subsequently grown for 60 days under saline stress. Results Melatonin treatment, particularly at 50 μM (T50), significantly increased the fresh weight of both aerial parts and roots. Aerial biomass nearly doubled, reaching 47.6 g plant⁻¹ compared to 23.8 g plant⁻¹ in untreated plants under salinity (+100%). Root fresh weight also rose markedly, from 29.6 g plant⁻¹ to 50.3 g plant⁻¹ (+69.8%). Leaf area expanded substantially, averaging 660.8 cm² per plant at T50 versus 301.2 cm² in salinity-stressed controls (+119.4%). Total chlorophyll content increased by 3.9–11.2%, with values rising from 43.43 µg cm⁻² in untreated plants under salinity to a maximum of 48.29 µg cm⁻² at 25 μM melatonin. Stomatal conductance showed a significant improvement as well, reaching 169.4 mmol m⁻² s⁻¹ at T50, which represented a 50.6% increase relative to untreated plants. Biochemical stress indicators declined consistently in melatonin-treated plants. MDA content decreased by 36.2% (from 3.87 to 2.47 nmol mg⁻¹ FW at T50), while foliar proline accumulation was reduced by 28.1% under the same treatment. Leaf total phenol content followed a similar trend, showing reductions ranging from 19.2 to 48.1% across all melatonin doses compared with salt-stressed controls. In most cases, these decreases were statistically significant (P<0.05), indicating improved redox homeostasis and membrane stability under salt stress. Conclusions Among the tested concentrations, 50 μM melatonin was the most effective in promoting growth and alleviating stress. These findings highlight its potential as a pre-harvest strategy to enhance basil performance under salinity within the broader context of melatonin-based stress management.

Fungal endophytes are living inside plants without any harmful effects; the prospecting about them is increased day by day because they can produce bioactive compounds which can be used in different applications. Herein, the current study was aimed to isolate the endophytic fungi from the Ocimum basilicum plant as safe microorganisms and evaluate their biological activities. The results illustrated that three endophytic fungal strains were isolated and identified morphologically and genetically as Aspergillus nidulans, Aspergillus fumigatus, and Aspergillus flavus and deposited in gene bank under accession numbers MZ045561, MZ045562, and MZ045563 respectively. Moreover, cell-free filtrates of endophytic fungal strains were extracted using ethyl acetate, where these crude extracts exhibited promising antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia, and Candida albicans at a concentration of 1000 µg/mL. Furthermore, these endophytic strains exhibited a potential antioxidant activity where IC50 of the crude extract of A. nidulans, A. fumigatus, and A. flavus were (166.3, 68.4, and 347.1 µg/mL) and (151.2, 77.9, and 246.3 µg/mL) using DPPH and ABTS methods, respectively. Furthermore, the ethyl acetate crude extracts of these endophytic fungi did not exhibit any cytotoxic effect against Vero and Wi 38 normal cells. GC–MS analysis of the crude extract of A. nidulans, A. fumigatus, and A. flavus indicated the presence of 22, 22, and 20 active compounds, respectively. The major compounds in the fungal extracts are belonging to fatty acids, fatty acid esters, tetrahydrofurans, and sterols. In conclusion, the isolated endophytic A. nidulans, A. fumigatus, and A. flavus from Ocimum basilicum are promising sources for bioactive compounds.

Environmental stresses might alter the activity of antioxidant defense system and both quantity and quality of the essential oil constituents in aromatic plants. In the current study, a greenhouse experiment was designed to assess the influence of cold stress on total phenolic (TPC) and flavonoid contents (TFC), DPPH radical scavenging, antioxidant and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) enzymes activity and content of phenylpropanoid compounds in Ocimum basilicum L. The genes expression levels of chavicol O -methyl transferase ( CVOMT ), cinnamate 4-hydroxylase ( C4H ), eugenol synthase 1 ( EGS1 ) and eugenol O -methyl transferase ( EOMT ) were also investigated. Results revealed the highest TPC, TFC and DPPH at 4 °C for 12 h. Positive significant correlation was observed between TFC and DPPH, as well as TPC and PAL enzyme activity. The highest activity of superoxide dismutase and guaiacol peroxidase was recorded in 4 °C for 48 h, while this treatment caused the highest reduction in the activities of ascorbate peroxidase and catalase. In plants exposed to 10 °C for 48 h, the contents of methyleugenol and methylchavicol was positively associated with the expression levels of EGS1 and EOMT . A positive correlation was also found between C4H expression and eugenol, methyleugenol and methylchavicol contents under 4 °C for 12 h.

Aquaponics offers sustainable cultivation by integrating aquaculture and hydroponics, yet nutrient limitations often constrain plant performance. This study evaluated the effects of three nutrient solutions (aquaponics, Hoagland, and Hoagland + aquaponics) combined with foliar applications of iron and potassium (1000 mg/L) on morphological, physiological, and biochemical characteristics of green and purple basil ( Ocimum basilicum L.) cultivars in a completely randomized factorial design with three replications. Results demonstrated that aquaponics nutrient solution significantly enhanced plant height (39.81%), internode length (43.32%), stem diameter (30.88%), shoot (40.41%) and root (105.43%) biomass, leaf number (51.92%) and leaf area (51.95%) compared to Hoagland-treated plants. Foliar potassium and iron applications substantially improved growth parameters across both cultivars, with green basil showing superior performance overall. Photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll a, b) were highest in green basil under aquaponics with potassium spray, while purple basil accumulated more anthocyanins compared to green basil. Mineral analysis revealed that K concentration was lower in aquaponics, although foliar K treatments effectively increased K concentrations in leaves, in all nutrient solutions. Essential oil content was notably higher in aquaponics-grown plants and further enhanced by potassium and iron foliar applications, particularly in green basil. Strong positive correlations were observed between growth parameters, and essential oil production. These findings demonstrate that combining aquaponics with strategic foliar supplementation of potassium and iron represents an effective approach for optimizing basil production, quality, and essential oil yield in sustainable cultivation systems.