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The paper proposes to derive some new poverty indices which depend on aging classes. We also give some properties of it and show the connection between economic measure and new poverty measures these based on the concept of reversed residual incomes. In addition, the characterization of Pareto distribution based on new poverty functions is obtained. Furthermore, the stochastic orderings of new poverty indices are studied and their properties. In addition, the weighted poverty gap indices and stochastic dominance which involve the concept of inactivity incomes and its features are studied.

Contents: Poverty and the response to the economic crisis in Liberia. brief overview -- Poverty and human development diagnostic -- Poverty in Liberia. level, profile and determinants -- Education in Liberia. basic diagnostic using the 2007 CWIQ survey -- Health in Liberia. basic diagnostic using the 2007 CWIQ survey -- Impact of higher food prices and fiscal measures taken to respond to the crisis -- Rice prices and poverty in Liberia -- Benefit incidence of fiscal measures to deal with the impact on households of the economic crisis in Liberia. comparing import and income taxes -- Evaluation of the cash for work temporary employment program -- Ex ante assessment of the potential impact of labor intensive public works in Liberia -- Liberia's cash for work temporary employment project. responding to crisis in low income, fragile countries -- Impact of labor intensive public works in Liberia. results from a light evaluation survey -- List of tables, figures, and boxes.

Financial development may affect poverty directly and indirectly through its impact on income inequality, economic growth, and financial instability. Previous studies do not consider all these channels simultaneously. To proxy financial development, we use the ratio of private credit to GDP or an IMF composite measure. Our preferred measure for poverty is the poverty gap, i.e. the shortfall from the poverty line. Our fixed effects estimation results for an unbalanced panel of 84 countries over the 1975–2014 period suggest that financial development does not have a direct effect on the poverty gap. However, as financial development leads to greater inequality, which, in turn, results in more poverty, financial development has an indirect effect on poverty through this transmission channel. Only if we use poverty lines of $3.20 or $5.50 (instead of $1.90 a day as in our baseline model) to define the poverty gap, we find that economic growth reduces poverty. This implies that in those cases the overall effect of financial development on poverty may be positive or negative, depending on which indirect effect, i.e. that of income inequality or growth, is stronger. Financial instability does not seem to affect the poverty gap. These results are consistent across various robustness checks.

Understanding Changes in Poverty brings together different methods to decompose the contributions to poverty reduction. A simple approach quantifies the contribution of changes in demographics, employment, earnings, public transfers, and remittances to poverty reduction. A more complex approach quantifies the contributions to poverty reduction from changes in individual and household characteristics, including changes in the sectoral, occupational, and educational structure of the workforce, as well as changes in the returns to individual and household characteristics. Understanding Changes in Poverty implements these approaches and finds that labor income growththat is, growth in income per worker rather than an increase in the number of employed workerswas the largest contributor to moderate poverty reduction in 21 countries experiencing substantial reductions in poverty over the past decade. Changes in demographics, public transfers, and remittances helped, but made relatively smaller contributions to poverty reduction. Further decompositions in three countries find that labor income grew mainly because of higher returns to human capital endowments, signaling increases in productivity, higher relative price of labor, or both. Understanding Changes in Poverty will be of particular relevance to development practitioners interested in better understanding distributional changes over time. The methods and tools presented in this book can also be applied to better understand changes in inequality or any other distributional change.

Research on achievement gaps by race/ethnicity and poverty status typically focuses on each gap separately, and recent syntheses suggest the poverty gap is growing while racial/ethnic gaps are narrowing. In this study, we used time-varying effect modeling to examine the interaction of race/ethnicity and poverty gaps in math and reading achievement from 1986–2005 for poor and non-poor White, Black, and Hispanic students in three age groups (5–6, 9–10, and 13–14). We found that across this twenty-year period, the gaps between poor White students and their poor Black and Hispanic peers grew, while the gap between non-poor Whites and Hispanics narrowed. We conclude that understanding the nature of achievement gaps requires simultaneous examination of race/ethnicity and income.

The current study investigated the association between out-of-pocket health expenditure and poverty using macroeconomic data from a sample of 145 countries from 2000 to 2017. In particular, it was examined whether the relationship between out-of-pocket health expenditure and poverty was contingent on a certain threshold level of out-of-pocket health spending. The dynamic panel threshold method, which allows for the endogeneity of the threshold regressor (out-of-pocket health expenditure), was used. Three indicators were adopted as poverty measures, namely the poverty headcount ratio, the poverty gap index, and the poverty gap squared index. At the same time, out-of-pocket health expenditure was measured as a percentage of total health expenditure. The results showed the validity of the estimated threshold models, indicating that only beyond the turning point, which was about 29 percent, that out-of-pocket health spending led to increased poverty. When heterogeneity was controlled for in the sample, using the World Bank income classification, the findings showed variations in the estimated threshold, with higher values for the low- and lower-middle-income groups, as compared to the high-income group. For the lower-income groups, below the threshold for out-of-pocket health expenditure, it had a positive or insignificant effect on poverty reduction, while it led to higher poverty above the threshold. Further, the sampled countries were divided into regions, according to the World Health Organization. Generally, improving health care systems through tolerable levels of out-of-pocket health expenditure is an inevitable step toward better health coverage and poverty reduction in many developing countries.

There are multiple measures that are used to determine the poor households, however, within the households below the poverty threshold, there are differences that exist among them. This paper explores poverty in South Africa using the poverty depth measure, which refers to the extent to which the income of the poor falls below the poverty line. The paper presents a succinct conceptualisation of poverty and the income poverty line measurement, and then goes on to examine the various ways in which poverty depth can be measured. The paper provides a comprehensive review of the literature on poverty gap and introduces the concept of poverty depth. The literature review shows that there are weaknesses in the poverty gap as traditionally conceived. A calculation of a poverty depth is done and an analysis of the determinants of poverty gap using an ordinary least squares (OLS) regression is conducted. The results show that the head of household’s characteristics such as gender, employment status and marital status are significant in explaining the variation in the poverty depth. The paper reveals that the poor are different in their circumstances and recommends targeted interventions in dealing with poverty at household level.

This report's objective is to develop the evidence base for policy making in relation to poverty reduction. It produces a diagnosis of the broad nature of the poverty problem and its trends in India, focusing on both consumption poverty and human development outcomes. It also includes attention in greater depth to three pathways important to inclusive growth and poverty reduction harnessing the potential of urban growth to stimulate rural-based poverty reduction, rural diversification away from agriculture, and tackling social exclusion. This report shows that urban growth, which has increasingly outpaced growth in rural areas, has helped to reduce poverty for urban residents directly. In addition, evidence appears of a much stronger link from urban economic growth to rural poverty reduction. Stronger links with rural poverty are due to a more integrated economy. Urban areas are a demand hub for rural producers, as well as a source of employment for the rural labor force. They are aiding the transformation of the rural economy out of agriculture. In urban areas, it is small and medium-size towns, rather than large cities, that appear to demonstrate the strongest urban-rural growth links. Urban growth also stimulates rural-urban migration. But although some increase in such migration has occurred over time, migration levels in India remain relatively low compared to other countries.

Official statistics tend to rely on a headcount approach to poverty measurement, distinguishing ‘the poor’ from the ‘non-poor’ on the basis of an anchored threshold. Invariably, this does little to engage with the gradations of material hardship affecting those living, to varying degrees, below the poverty line. In response, this paper interrogates an apparent flatlining in UK poverty to establish the changing profile of poverty, as well as those most affected by it. Drawing on the Family Resources survey, this paper reveals an increasing depth of poverty in the UK since 2010, with bifurcation observable in the living standards of different percentile groups below the poverty line. In addition, this paper demonstrates substantial compositional changes in the socio-demographic profile of (deep) poverty. Since 2010, the likelihood of falling into deep poverty has increased for women, children, larger families, Black people and those in full-time work. Within the context of COVID-19, I argue there is a need to re-think how we currently conceptualise poverty by better attending to internal heterogeneity within the broader analytical and methodological category of ‘the poor’. Doing so raises pressing questions about the prevailing modes of poverty measurement that tend to frame and delimit the social scientific analysis of poverty, as well as the policies deemed appropriate in tackling it.

Currently, poverty and food deficiency are prevalent in the region where two-thirds of the population is resided according to World Bank estimates [Klytchnikova (2017). Counting calories: the data behind food insecurity and hunger. The World Bank Data Blog. Available at http://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/counting-calories-data-behind-food-insecurity-and-hunger?CID=POV_TT_Poverty_EN_EXT]. This panel data study is set to analyze the effect of competitiveness, governance and globalization on poverty in case of 73 developing countries from 2005 to 2016. The indicators of governance are extracted from World Governance Indicators, and an overall index is constituted using factor analysis. This study has estimated eight models with different proxies of governance and one without governance. The results estimated using feasible generalized least squares approach which confirmed that all governance indicators have a negative impact on poverty. Similarly, globalization, competitiveness and development expenditures also assist in poverty alleviation.