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Testing students on information that they do not know might seem like a fruitless endeavor. After all, why give anyone a test that they are guaranteed to fail because they have not yet learned the material? Remarkably, a growing body of research indicates that such testing—formally known as prequestioning or pretesting—can benefit learning if there is an opportunity to study the correct answers afterwards. This prequestioning effect or pretesting effect has been successfully demonstrated with a variety of learning materials, despite many erroneous responses being generated on initial tests, and in conjunction with text materials, videos, lectures, and/or correct answer feedback. In this review, we summarize the emerging evidence for prequestioning and pretesting effects on memory and transfer of learning. Uses of pre-instruction testing in the classroom, theoretical explanations, and other considerations are addressed. The evidence to date indicates that prequestioning and pretesting can often enhance learning, but the extent of that enhancement may vary due to differences in procedure or how learning is assessed. The underlying cognitive mechanisms, which can be represented by a three-stage framework, appear to involve test-induced changes in subsequent learning behaviors and possibly other processes. Further research is needed to clarify moderating factors, theoretical issues, and best practices for educational applications.

Objective: Prepare special exercises to develop exercises using an assistive device to develop reaction speed, shoulder joint angle, and students' ability to perform the serve and forehand stroke in tennis, and identify the effect of exercises using an assistive device on developing reaction speed, shoulder joint angle, and students' ability to perform the serve and forehand stroke in tennis. Research methodology: The researcher relied on the experimental approach, given its compatibility with the nature of the research used a two-group design, an experimental and a control group, with a pre-test and a post-test, the research community consisted of 95 third-year students at the Islamic University. Thirty students were selected as the research sample, constituting 31.57% of the total research community. Results: The results) showed significant differences between the pre- and post-tests. The results were in favor of the post-tests. The control group, which received instruction using the traditional method adopted by the subject teacher, showed limited development in the study variables (such as reaction speed, serve accuracy, and forehand strike). Conclusions: The exercises using the assistive device demonstrated a clear positive effect on developing students' reaction speed compared to the control group, which used the traditional method, and the exercises contributed to improving shoulder joint mobility in terms of angle and range of motion, which was reflected in the quality of skill performance. Objetivo: Preparar ejercicios especiales con un dispositivo de asistencia para desarrollar la velocidad de reacción, el ángulo de la articulación del hombro y la capacidad de los estudiantes para realizar saques y golpes de derecha en tenis, e identificar el efecto de los ejercicios con un dispositivo de asistencia en el desarrollo de la velocidad de reacción, el ángulo de la articulación del hombro y la capacidad de los estudiantes para realizar saques y golpes de derecha en tenis. Metodología de la investigación: El investigador se basó en un enfoque experimental, dada su compatibilidad con la naturaleza de la investigación. Se empleó un diseño de dos grupos: un grupo experimental y un grupo control, con un pretest y un postest. La comunidad de investigación estuvo compuesta por 95 estudiantes de tercer año de la Universidad Islámica. Treinta estudiantes fueron seleccionados como muestra de investigación, lo que representa el 31,57% del total de la comunidad de investigación. Resultados: Los resultados mostraron diferencias significativas entre el pretest y el postest. Los resultados fueron favorables para el postest. El grupo control, que recibió instrucción mediante el método tradicional adoptado por el profesor de la asignatura, mostró un desarrollo limitado en las variables de estudio (como la velocidad de reacción, la precisión del saque y el golpe de derecha). Conclusiones: Los ejercicios con el dispositivo de asistencia demostraron un claro efecto positivo en el desarrollo de la velocidad de reacción de los estudiantes en comparación con el grupo control, que utilizó el método tradicional, y los ejercicios contribuyeron a mejorar la movilidad de la articulación del hombro en términos de ángulo y rango de movimiento, lo que se reflejó en la calidad del desempeño de la habilidad. Objectivo: Elaborar exercícios especiais com dispositivo auxiliar para desenvolver a velocidade de reacção, o ângulo da articulação do ombro e a capacidade de serviços e forehands em alunos de ténis, e identificar o efeito de exercícios com dispositivo auxiliar no desenvolvimento da velocidade de reacção, do ângulo da articulação do ombro e da capacidade de serviços e forehands em alunos de ténis. Metodologia da Investigação: O investigador utilizou uma abordagem experimental, dada a sua compatibilidade com a natureza da investigação. Utilizou-se um desenho de dois grupos: um grupo experimental e um grupo de controlo, com um pré-teste e um pós-teste. O grupo de investigação foi composto por 95 alunos do terceiro ano da Universidade Islâmica. Foram selecionados 30 alunos como amostra da investigação, representando 31,57% do total do grupo de investigação. Resultados: Os resultados mostraram diferenças significativas entre o pré-teste e o pós-teste. Os resultados foram favoráveis para o pós-teste. O grupo de controlo, que recebeu instruções utilizando o método tradicional adotado pelo professor da disciplina, apresentou um desenvolvimento limitado nas variáveis do estudo (como a velocidade de reação, a precisão do serviço e o forehand). Conclusões: Os exercícios com o dispositivo auxiliar demonstraram um claro efeito positivo no desenvolvimento da velocidade de reação dos alunos em comparação com o grupo de controlo, que utilizou o método tradicional. Os exercícios contribuíram para melhorar a mobilidade da articulação do ombro em termos de ângulo e amplitude de movimento, o que se refletiu na qualidade do desempenho das habilidades.

Volleyball is perceived as a physically demanding sport that involves rapid changes in speed, deceleration, and abrupt alterations in movement direction. It has been emphasized that physiological attributes such as VO2max, PIF, PEF, and FVC play a crucial role in the athletic performance of individuals participating in dynamic sports, aiding them in effectively managing critical situations. Hence, the aim of this research was to evaluate the impact of endurance training on physiological parameters among volleyball athletes. A randomized controlled trial was carried out with 24 male players (mean age 21,58; SD±2,46 years). The assessment of physiological characteristics involved the utilization of a dry spirometer for VO2max measurement and the Multistage Fitness Test for assessing PIF, PEF, and FVC. A two-way Anova analysis was executed to ascertain any disparities in physiological parameters from pre-test to post-test. The results indicated notable variances in physiological traits (VO2max, PIF, PEF, and FVC) among volleyball participants following the implementation of the Tabata intervention regimen. These metrics are instrumental in enhancing physiological capabilities to attain superior athletic performances. When designing training regimens, it is imperative to consider physiological functional elements aligned with the specific demands of the sport. Key words. VO2max; physiology; sport; exercise; Tabata training.

This study aims to test and determine the differences in the influence and effectiveness of cold temperature therapy and warm temperature therapy on fatigue in badminton athletes. This research uses a quasi experimental designs research method with a one group time series (pretest one post test) design. In this design, the first observation (pretest) is carried out after that the posttest observation. The treatment group was measured by providing cold temperature therapy and warm temperature therapy for fatigue which will be known to consist of three (3) indicators, namely: (1) Pulse Rate (DN) (2) Rating of Perceive Exertion (RPE) and (3) Blood Lactate Levels (LD). The research sample was taken from the existing population using a purposive sampling method with a total of 20 samples. Data collection is obtained through tests and measurements. The test instruments used to measure fatigue are stop time, questionnaires and Accutrend Lactate. The analysis technique uses the t test \"paired sample t test and independent sample t test\". The research results show that there is a significant difference between cold temperature therapy and warm temperature therapy on fatigue consisting of pulse rate, Rating of Perceive Exertion and blood lactate with a significance value of <0.05 using the paired t-test, a DN value of 0.049 , the RPE value is 0.003 and the LD value is 0.006. So it can be interpreted that there is a significant influence on the treatment given with cold temperature therapy and warm temperature therapy on the fatigue variable for badminton athletes. Based on the percentage results obtained, it can be said that cold temperature therapy is more effective in reducing DN and LD. Meanwhile, warm temperature therapy is more effective in reducing RPE.

Making errors is part of human nature, and it is thus important to know how to get the best out of them. Experimental evidence has shown that generating errors can enhance learning when these are followed by corrective feedback. However, little is known about the specific conditions and mechanisms that underlie this benefit of experiencing errors. This review aimed to shed some light on this type of learning. First, we highlight certain conditions that may influence errorful learning. These include the timing of corrective feedback, error types, learner awareness about errorful learning, motivation to learn the study material, differences in special populations (e.g., amnesia), incidental versus intentional encoding, the importance of selecting an appropriate final test procedure, whether the study material needs to be semantically related, and if it is necessary to recover the previous errors at the time of retrieval. We then consider four explanatory theories of errorful learning: (1) The Mediator Effectiveness hypothesis, (2) the Search Set theory, (3) the Recursive Reminding theory, and (4) the Error Prediction theory. According to these theories, two factors are decisive for observing the benefits of errorful learning: the level of a pre-existing semantic relationship between the study materials, and whether the error must be explicitly recovered on the final test. To conclude, we discuss some limitations of using a pretesting procedure to study errorful learning and we reflect on further research. This review brings us closer to understanding why experiencing errors confers a memory advantage.

Background: Knee osteoarthritis is one of the most common musculoskeletal problems in the elderly, characterized by pain, stiffness, and decreased joint function, all of which negatively affect quality of life. Objective: To examine the effect of CKC and OKC exercises on dynamic balance and health status among elderly patients with knee osteoarthritis. Methods: This study employed a quasi-experimental design with a pretest-posttest two-group approach. The sample consisted of 30 elderly individuals aged ≥60 years with a medical diagnosis of knee osteoarthritis, selected using purposive sampling. Respondents were divided into two groups: 15 participants performed CKC exercises and 15 participants performed OKC exercises for two weeks with a frequency of three sessions per week. The Western Ontario and McMaster Osteoarthritis Index (WOMAC) was used to assess health status, and the Time Up and Go Test (TUG) was used to assess dynamic balance. Data were analyzed using paired t-tests with SPSS software. Results: There was a significant reduction in WOMAC scores in both the CKC group (38.47 ± 8.16 to 32.60 ± 9.43; p < 0.001) and the OKC group (37.53 ± 7.97 to 34.40 ± 8.40; p < 0.001). TUG performance also improved significantly in the CKC group (12.80 ± 1.08 to 11.20 ± 1.47; p < 0.001) and the OKC group (12.80 ± 1.21 to 11.27 ± 1.28; p < 0.001). Overall, improvements in health status were greater in the CKC group compared to the OKC group. Conclusion: Both CKC and OKC exercises are effective in improving dynamic balance and health status among elderly patients with knee osteoarthritis. CKC exercises tend to provide greater benefits in overall functional improvement. Antecedentes: La artrosis de rodilla es uno de los problemas musculoesqueléticos más comunes en las personas mayores, caracterizada por dolor, rigidez y disminución de la función articular, lo que afecta negativamente la calidad de vida. Objetivo: Examinar el efecto de los ejercicios en cadena cinética cerrada (CKC) y cadena cinética abierta (OKC) sobre el equilibrio dinámico y el estado de salud en pacientes mayores con artrosis de rodilla. Métodos: Este estudio empleó un diseño cuasi-experimental con un enfoque de pretest-postest en dos grupos. La muestra estuvo compuesta por 30 adultos mayores de ≥60 años con diagnóstico médico de artrosis de rodilla, seleccionados mediante muestreo intencional. Los participantes se dividieron en dos grupos: 15 realizaron ejercicios CKC y 15 realizaron ejercicios OKC durante dos semanas con una frecuencia de tres sesiones por semana. El índice de osteoartritis de Western Ontario y McMaster (WOMAC) se utilizó para evaluar el estado de salud, y la prueba Time Up and Go (TUG) se empleó para evaluar el equilibrio dinámico. Los datos se analizaron mediante pruebas t pareadas utilizando el software SPSS. Resultados: Se observó una reducción significativa en los puntajes WOMAC tanto en el grupo CKC (de 38.47 ± 8.16 a 32.60 ± 9.43; p < 0.001) como en el grupo OKC (de 37.53 ± 7.97 a 34.40 ± 8.40; p < 0.001). El desempeño en la prueba TUG también mejoró significativamente en el grupo CKC (de 12.80 ± 1.08 a 11.20 ± 1.47; p < 0.001) y en el grupo OKC (de 12.80 ± 1.21 a 11.27 ± 1.28; p < 0.001). En general, las mejoras en el estado de salud fueron mayores en el grupo CKC en comparación con el grupo OKC. Conclusión: Tanto los ejercicios CKC como OKC son efectivos para mejorar el equilibrio dinámico y el estado de salud en pacientes mayores con artrosis de rodilla. Los ejercicios CKC tienden a proporcionar mayores beneficios en la mejora funcional general. Introdução: A osteoartrose do joelho é um dos problemas músculo-esqueléticos mais comuns nos idosos, caracterizada por dor, rigidez e diminuição da função articular, o que impacta negativamente a qualidade de vida. Objectivo: Examinar o efeito dos exercícios em cadeia cinética fechada (CCF) e em cadeia cinética aberta (CCA) no equilíbrio dinâmico e no estado de saúde em doentes idosos com osteoartrose do joelho. Métodos: Este estudo utilizou um desenho quase experimental com uma abordagem pré-teste-pós-teste em dois grupos. A amostra foi constituída por 30 idosos com idade ≥60 anos e diagnóstico médico de osteoartrose do joelho, selecionados por amostragem intencional. Os participantes foram divididos em dois grupos: 15 realizaram exercícios em CCF e 15 realizaram exercícios em CCA durante duas semanas, com uma frequência de três sessões por semana. O Índice de Osteoartrite Western Ontario-McMaster (WOMAC) foi utilizado para avaliar o estado de saúde, e o teste Time Up and Go (TUG) foi utilizado para avaliar o equilíbrio dinâmico. Os dados foram analisados ​​através de testes t emparelhados, utilizando o software SPSS. Resultados: Observou-se uma redução significativa dos scores do WOMAC tanto no grupo CKC (de 38,47 ± 8,16 para 32,60 ± 9,43; p < 0,001) como no grupo OKC (de 37,53 ± 7,97 para 34,40 ± 8,40; p < 0,001). O desempenho no teste TUG também melhorou significativamente no grupo CKC (de 12,80 ± 1,08 para 11,20 ± 1,47; p < 0,001) e no grupo OKC (de 12,80 ± 1,21 para 11,27 ± 1,28; p < 0,001). No geral, as melhorias no estado de saúde foram maiores no grupo CKC em comparação com o grupo OKC. Conclusão: Tanto os exercícios CKC como OKC são eficazes na melhoria do equilíbrio dinâmico e do estado de saúde em doentes idosos com OA do joelho. Os exercícios CKC tendem a proporcionar maiores benefícios na melhoria funcional global.

Introduction: Soccer requires athletes to possess strength and endurance, involving intense physical activities that may lead to fatigue and injury. Such conditions stimulate the release of inflammatory markers, including interleukin-6 (IL-6) and creatine kinase (CK), which can impair recovery and athletic performance. Cold-water immersion (CWI) is a commonly used recovery strategy to mitigate these effects. Objective: This study aimed to examine the impact of CWI on IL-6 and CK levels, as well as vertical jump performance in female soccer players following a match. Methodology: A quasi-experimental two-group pretest-posttest design was employed, involving 20 purposively sampled participants. Blood samples were collected at four time points: pre-match, post-match, 24 hours post-match, and 48 hours post-match. Vertical jump performance was used to assess physical recovery. Results: Results showed no significant difference in vertical jump performance between the groups at 24 hours post-match (p > 0.05), but a significant difference was found at 48 hours post-match (p < 0.05), favoring the CWI group. Significant differences in IL-6 and CK levels were observed between the groups at both 24 and 48 hours post-match (p < 0.05). Discussion: CWI effectively reduced inflammation and muscle damage, as reflected in IL-6 and CK values, and promoted faster neuromuscular recovery. This finding suggests that CWI supports biological repair and functional recovery within 48 hours post-match. Conclusions: Cold-water immersion significantly improved physiological recovery in female soccer players, as indicated by lower IL-6 and CK levels and improved vertical jump performance over time compared to the control group. Introducción: El fútbol requiere que los atletas posean fuerza y resistencia, lo que implica actividades físicas intensas que pueden provocar fatiga y lesiones. Dichas condiciones estimulan la liberación de marcadores inflamatorios, como la interleucina-6 (IL-6) y la creatina quinasa (CK), que pueden perjudicar la recuperación y el rendimiento atlético. La inmersión en agua fría (CWI) es una estrategia de recuperación comúnmente utilizada para mitigar estos efectos. Objetivo: Este estudio tuvo como objetivo examinar el impacto de la CWI en los niveles de IL-6 y CK, así como en el rendimiento del salto vertical en jugadoras de fútbol después de un partido. Metodología: Se empleó un diseño pretest-postest cuasiexperimental de dos grupos, con 20 participantes muestreados intencionalmente. Se recogieron muestras de sangre en cuatro puntos temporales: antes del partido, después del partido, 24 horas después del partido y 48 horas después del partido. El rendimiento del salto vertical se utilizó para evaluar la recuperación física. Resultados: Los resultados no mostraron diferencias significativas en el rendimiento en salto vertical entre los grupos a las 24 horas posteriores al partido (p > 0,05), pero sí se encontró una diferencia significativa a las 48 horas posteriores al partido (p < 0,05), a favor del grupo CWI. Se observaron diferencias significativas en los niveles de IL-6 y CK entre los grupos tanto a las 24 como a las 48 horas posteriores al partido (p < 0,05). Discusión: La CWI redujo eficazmente la inflamación y el daño muscular, como se refleja en los valores de IL-6 y CK, y promovió una recuperación neuromuscular más rápida. Este hallazgo sugiere que la CWI favorece la reparación biológica y la recuperación funcional en las 48 horas posteriores al partido. Conclusiones: La inmersión en agua fría mejoró significativamente la recuperación fisiológica en las jugadoras de fútbol, ​​como lo indican los niveles más bajos de IL-6 y CK y un mejor rendimiento del salto vertical a lo largo del tiempo en comparación con el grupo de control. Introdução: O futebol exige força e resistência dos atletas, o que envolve atividades físicas intensas que podem levar à fadiga e lesões. Estas condições estimulam a libertação de marcadores inflamatórios, como a interleucina-6 (IL-6) e a creatina quinase (CK), que podem prejudicar a recuperação e o desempenho atlético. A imersão em água fria (IQF) é uma estratégia de recuperação comummente utilizada para mitigar estes efeitos.Objectivo: Este estudo teve como objectivo examinar o impacto da IQF nos níveis de IL-6 e CK, bem como no desempenho do salto vertical, em jogadoras de futebol após um jogo.Metodologia: Foi utilizado um desenho quase experimental de dois grupos, com pré-teste e pós-teste, com 20 participantes amostrados propositadamente. Foram recolhidas amostras de sangue em quatro momentos: pré-jogo, pós-jogo, 24 horas pós-jogo e 48 horas pós-jogo. O desempenho do salto vertical foi utilizado para avaliar a recuperação física.Resultados: Os resultados não mostraram diferenças significativas no desempenho do salto vertical entre os grupos 24 horas após o jogo (p > 0,05), mas foi encontrada uma diferença significativa 48 horas após o jogo (p < 0,05), favorecendo o grupo CWI. Foram observadas diferenças significativas nos níveis de IL-6 e CK entre os grupos 24 e 48 horas após a partida (p < 0,05).Discussão: O CWI reduziu eficazmente a inflamação e o dano muscular, refletidos nos níveis de IL-6 e CK, e promoveu uma recuperação neuromuscular mais rápida. Este achado sugere que o CWI promove a reparação biológica e a recuperação funcional nas 48 horas após a partida.Conclusões: A imersão em água fria melhorou significativamente a recuperação fisiológica em jogadoras de futebol, como indicado pelos níveis mais baixos de IL-6 e CK, e melhorou o desempenho do salto vertical ao longo do tempo em comparação com o grupo de controlo.

Pretesting and posttesting have long been implemented in classrooms as methods of testing and improving learning. Prior research has been mixed on the relative benefits of pretesting versus posttesting, with some studies finding pretesting to be more beneficial, and others finding posttesting to be more beneficial. True/False testing is a particularly easy-to-implement method and is regularly used in classrooms. However, relatively little is known about how these tests affect learning. Three experiments address the effects of true/false pre- and posttests on learning correct information and intrusion rates of false information. We find consistent benefits of both pretesting and posttesting but significantly higher intrusion rates for posttesting relative to pretesting, a finding that persisted despite inclusion of simple True/False feedback (Experiment 2) and substantive feedback (Experiment 3). Although the difference between pretesting and posttesting intrusion rates was still significant with the addition of substantive feedback, overall intrusion rates were greatly reduced.

Taking a test before learning new information in a lesson improves memory for that information – pretesting effect. Although the specific memory benefit of a pretest on pretested information has been well documented, it remains unclear what the circumstances necessary for the broader memory benefit are – that is, the benefit of a pretest on memory of information in the lesson that was not pretested. Sometimes this broader benefit is present, but other times it disappears or reverses. We investigated if manipulating where the non-pretested information appears in a lesson – either before or after the pretested information – affects broader memory benefits. Participants read a text passage (Experiment 1 ) or watched a video lecture (Experiment 2 ) after completing a pretest on half of the lesson content. The pretested information appeared either at the beginning (prior to the non-pretested information) or at the end (after the non-pretested information) of the lesson. The final test assessed memory of both pretested and non-pretested information. We hypothesized that pretests trigger an attentional window that opens during the lesson and closes after pretested information has been identified. Any information, including non-pretested information, will benefit from being in this window because it is more likely to be processed. We found that memory of non-pretested information is better if the non-pretested information is presented at the beginning versus at the end of a lesson, regardless of delivery modality. These results indicate that the presentation order of pretested versus non-pretested information contributes to the broader memory benefits associated with pretesting.