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Boat maintenance facilities in coastal areas contribute a significant amount of antifouling paint particles (APP) to coastal environments. Very few studies have concentrated on the leaching of booster biocides embedded in old paint particles. Therefore, this study attempted to assess the leaching of Dichlofluanid and Irgarol 1051 from APP collected from Mayflower Marina in southwest England. They were analyzed by GC-MS. A leaching experiment revealed that a considerable amount of Dichlofluanid (ca. 24 μg/L) leached from 0.4 g/L of APP after the first hour, followed by a marked decline in the amount measured in the water over time, almost degrading after 24 h in seawater, affording less of an environmental threat to non-target organisms. Conversely, Irgarol 1051 appeared to be persistent and continuously leached from the 0.4 g/L of APP even after 10 days, yielding a concentration of 0.61 μg/L in seawater, potentially posing a significant threat to the aquatic environment through leaching from APP.

Antifouling paint particles are anthropogenic particles primarily originating from marine coatings. Recent investigations have shed light on their toxicity at concentrations found in the environment. However, several significant challenges still impede accurate antifouling paint particle quantification. Aiming to provide a general overview of the advancements in the field and identify its main challenges, in the present contribution, we provide timely and evidence-based analysis and opinion on the emerging field of antifouling paint particles. Current quantification methods are relatively simplistic and may lead to substantial underestimation of the smallest antifouling paint particle fractions (< 0.5 mm), which are expected to be the most abundant due to their brittleness. Moreover, due to the diverse range of marine coatings being used and available in the market, it becomes essential to utilise analytical techniques to discern non-antifouling paint particles from the overall particle pool. The intricate chemical composition of antifouling paint particles further complicates the task of addressing these issues. We encourage researchers to persevere in the development of analytical techniques as an initial stride in tackling the complexities associated with antifouling paint particles, thus advancing this emerging field.

The widespread use of polymers across various industries has led to significant microplastic pollution in marine environments, with millions of tons of microplastics being released annually. This study examines the contribution of coatings particles released from commercial ships, to marine microplastic pollution. Key sources of these microplastics include the weathering and abrasion of coatings during ship maintenance activities. Marine coatings, which are rich in polymers such as polyurethanes and epoxies, are released into the ocean through processes like normal wear and tear, damage, in-water cleaning, and removal of old paint layers. Our research indicates that the global shipping sector could be a substantial contributor to microplastic pollution, potentially releasing thousands of tons annually. Predictive modeling identifies bulk carriers as the largest contributors, followed by tankers, containerships, and cargo vessels. This study also finds that manual biofouling cleaning by divers generates more microplastics than cleaning using mechanized in-water cleaning (IWC) systems with debris capture. Mitigation strategies, such as alternative cleaning methods and improved waste capture and processing, are proposed, but their effectiveness remains uncertain due to implementation challenges. A multidisciplinary approach and coordinated global efforts are essential to develop effective strategies for reducing microplastic pollution from ship coatings and protecting marine ecosystems.

Microplastic river emissions are known to be one of the major sources for marine microplastic pollution. Especially urbanized estuaries localized at the land-sea interface and subjected to microplastic emissions from various sources exhibit a high microplastic discharge potential to adjacent coasts. To adapt effective measures against microplastic emissions a more detailed knowledge on the importance of various microplastic sources is necessary. As field data is scarce we combined different approaches to assess microplastic emissions into the Warnow estuary, southwestern Baltic Sea. Resulting microplastic emission estimates are based on in-situ measurements for the catchment emissions, whereas for the remaining microplastic sources within the estuary literature data on microplastic abundances, and various parameters were used (e.g. demographical, hydrological, geographical). The evaluation of the different emission scenarios revealed that the majority of microplastic is likely discharged by the Warnow river catchment (49.4%) and the separated city stormwater system (43.1%) into the estuary, followed by combined sewer discharges (6.1%). Wastewater treatment plant emissions exhibit the lowest percentage (1.4%). Our approach to estimate anti-fouling paint particles emissions from leisure and commercial shipping activities was associated with highest uncertainties. However, our results indicate the importance of this source highlighting the necessity for future research on the topic. Based on our assumptions for microplastic retention within the estuary, we estimate a potential annual emission of 152–291 billion microplastics (majority within the size class 10–100 µm) to the Baltic Sea. Considering all uncertainties of the different applied approaches, we could assess the importance of various microplastic sources which can be used by authorities to prioritize and establish emission reduction measures. Additionally, the study provides parameters for microplastic emission estimates that can be transferred from our model system to other urbanized Baltic estuaries.

Maintenance of maritime vessels includes the removal of paint from hulls that are sources of metals, antifouling paint particles (APPs) and microplastics (MPs) that end up in the coastal environment. Simon’s Town is a small urban town in False Bay, Cape Town, South Africa, where maritime activities take place (there is a naval harbour, marina and shipyard). The aim of this study was to measure metals, APPs and MPs in Simon’s Town, to assess the impact of maritime activities and a storm water pipe in a sheltered marina. Sediment samples were collected from six sites during winter 2018. Sediment and extracted APPs were analysed for metal concentrations (Al, As, B, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mo, Ni, Pb, Se, Sb, Sn, Sr, V and Zn) and MPs characterised based on type (shape and polymer), colour and size. Highest average metal concentrations in sediment for all sites were Fe (32228 ± SEM 4024), Al (12271 ± 1062) and Cu (1129 ± 407). Metals in paint particles were highest for Fe (80873 ± 19341), Cu (66762 ± 13082) and Zn (44910 ± 1400 µg/g). Metal and MP fragment concentrations were highest at the slipway of the shipyard, decreasing with increased distance from the slipway. MP filaments were highest close to the storm water outfall pipe. Our results suggest that shipyards are potential sources of metals and MP fragments (mainly APPs), with storm water pipes potential sources of MP filaments. Various indices applied to assess the potential impacts of metals and MPs suggest that these contaminants have the potential to adversely impact the intertidal ecosystem investigated.

The abundance, distribution, and composition of microparticles (MPs) in the sea-surface microlayer (S-SML, less than 100 μm of sea surface in this experiment) and in bulk water (1 m under the sea surface) were investigated to evaluate the pollution level of MPs in Osaka Bay in Japan. Both seawater fractions were collected at eight sites including ship navigation routes, the coastal area, and the center of Osaka Bay for 2021–2023. MPs were filtered for four size ranges (10–53, 53–125, 125–500, and >500 μm) and then digested with H2O2. MPs’ abundance was microscopically assessed; and polymer types of MPs were identified by a Fourier transform infrared spectrometer (FTIR). For the 22 collections performed along eight sites, the average MPs’ abundance was 903 ± 921 items/kg for S-SML, while for the 25 collections performed along the same sites, the average MPs’ abundance was 55.9 ± 40.4 items/kg for bulk water, respectively. MPs in both S-SML and bulk water exhibited their highest abundance along the navigation routes. The smallest MPs (10–53 μm) accounted for 81.2% and for 62.2% of all MPs in S-SML and in bulk water among all sites, respectively. Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) was the major type of MPs identified while minor ones were polyethylene, polyesters, polystyrene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyamide, etc. PMMA comprised 95.1% of total MPs in S-SML and 45.6% of total MPs in bulk water. In addition, PMMA accounted for 96.6% in S-SML and 49.5% in bulk water for the smallest MP category (10–53 μm). It can be assumed that the MP sources were marine paints—primarily APPs (antifouling paint particles)—as well as land coatings. Sea pollution due to microparticles from ship vessels should be given proper attention.

Paint particles are a highly-important but as-yet overlooked type of microplastic commonly found in coastal sediment, although research interest is growing. There is a need for paint particles as laboratory standards for spiking experiments, however, given paint is generally only available for purchase in liquid form, a new method is needed to reliable produce laboratory-grade paint particles. The main distinguishing issue with paint particle production (as opposed to other microplastic production) is the paint must be applied to a surface in layers before then being decoupled to be processed into particles. Since paints, and especially primers, are designed specifically to strongly adhere to surfaces, using the right application material is highly important. This study tests the time and material efficiency of 2 different application materials; laboratory wax film (i.e. Parafilm®) and silicone rubber sheets (i.e. silicone baking sheets). Silicone rubber was on average 36 × more time-efficient than laboratory wax and was also 8 × more material-efficient (8 × more paint particles were produce per liquid paint used). Indeed, silicone rubber provided an essentially-perfect decoupling process, as the paint could be easily peeled away in a solid and complete layer. As such, for the future production of paint particles for laboratory purposes, silicone rubber is highly recommended as an application material.

The objective of this study is to eliminate the tackiness of sticky paint particles occurring in paint booths using calcium hydroxide. It ultimately aims to identify the optimal filtration velocity to determine the optimal operation condition for particle collection in the filter. As the filtration velocity increased further in the range of 0.2–0.5 m/min, the pressure drop increased rapidly, while the cleaning efficiency, overall collection efficiency, and fractional collection efficiency tended to decrease. The filtration velocity for optimal filtration condition was identified to be 0.2 m/min.

We propose a novel fast-responding and paintable pressure-sensitive paint (PSP) based on polymer particles, i.e. polymer-particle (pp-)PSP. As a fast-responding PSP, polymer-ceramic (PC-)PSP is widely studied. Since PC-PSP generally consists of titanium (IV) oxide (TiO2) particles, a large reduction in the luminescent intensity will occur due to the photocatalytic action of TiO2. We propose the usage of polymer particles instead of TiO2 particles to prevent the reduction in the luminescent intensity. Here, we fabricate pp-PSP based on the polystyrene particle with a diameter of 1 μm, and investigate the pressure- and temperature-sensitives, the response time, and the photostability. The performances of pp-PSP are compared with those of PC-PSP, indicating the high photostability with the other characteristics comparable to PC-PSP.

This study comprehensively assesses the release rate of biocides, corrosion effects related to antifouling, and the physical properties of different paint types. Tests were conducted to measure thickness, viscosity, hardness, bending, adhesion, gloss, impact resistance, abrasion resistance, scratch resistance, polarization, and salt spray. The paints evaluated include resin-based, acrylic-based, epoxy-based, and vinyl-based formulations. The study investigates the influence of biocide content, biocide particle size, and immersion time on release rate using a lab-scale setup. Results showed that acrylic-based paints had a higher biocide release rate due to faster hydrolysis, while smaller biocide particle sizes led to higher release rates in resin-based paints. Optimal total biocide contents were determined to be 30% for acrylic-based, 60% for epoxy-based, and 50% for vinyl-based paints. Antifouling corrosion analysis demonstrated that sample with an optimal release rate effectively prevent algae growth and fouling. Acrylic-based paint with 30 wt.% biocide content exhibited superior adhesion with a dolly separation force of 4.12 MPa. Evaluating the impact of synthesized polyaniline on 30 wt.% epoxy-based paint, a sample coated with 10 wt.% polyaniline represented a low corrosion rate of 0.35 µm/year and a high impedance value of approximately 37,000 Ohm·cm−2.