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The Endangered giant pangolin Smutsia gigantea is rare and elusive across its Central African range. Because of its solitary and nocturnal nature, the species is difficult to study and so its ecology is little known. Pangolins are considered the most trafficked mammals in the world. Therefore, confirming presence accurately and monitoring trends in distribution and abundance are essential to inform and prioritize conservation efforts. Camera traps are popular tools for surveying rare and cryptic species. However, non-targeted camera-trap surveys yield low camera-trapping rates for pangolins. Here we use camera-trap data from surveys conducted within three protected areas in Uganda to test whether targeted placement of cameras improves giant pangolin detection probability in occupancy models. The results indicate that giant pangolin detection probability is highest when camera traps are targeted on burrows. The median number of days from camera deployment to first giant pangolin detection event was 12, with the majority of events captured within 32 days from deployment. The median interval between giant pangolin events at a camera-trap site was 33 days. We demonstrate that camera-trap surveys can be designed to improve the detection of giant pangolins and we outline a set of recommendations to maximize the effectiveness of efforts to survey and monitor the species.

Two species of pangolins occur in Nepal: the Chinese pangolin Manis pentadactyla and the Indian pangolin Manis crassicaudata. They are categorized as Critically Endangered and Endangered, respectively, on the IUCN Red List, and are protected under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973 in Nepal. Although both this national law and CITES prohibit pangolin hunting and trade, such trade still occurs. To better understand the patterns of pangolin hunting and trade in Nepal, we analysed data on pangolin seizures gathered from official records, grey literature and verified public media reports dating from 1 January 2010 to 31 December 2020. A total of 122 pangolin seizures were reported in 27 districts, mostly in the central mid-hills. Seizure cases included 23 live pangolins, 18 whole-body skins with scales and 1,046.7 kg of scales. We estimate a minimum of 1,500 individuals were hunted locally over the 11-year study period. Analysis of the trade network identified the capital city, Kathmandu, as the main pangolin trade hub, with scales being the most commonly seized item. The illegal trade occurred mostly in two regions: central and eastern Nepal, and areas bordering China. The pangolins were hunted mainly from core habitats within rural areas, then transported to the city for trade. These data support the future development of effective law enforcement and policy interventions for this region, to stop the illegal pangolin trade. Greater understanding of the patterns of the local pangolin trade and the identification of hotspot areas and peak hunting seasons will allow us to prioritize areas for future conservation interventions.

Information on pangolin life history and ecology is becoming increasingly available in African countries through community-based surveys and camera-trapping. However, there is a paucity of information on the largely arboreal black-bellied pangolin Phataginus tetradactyla, which is categorized as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. By targeting fallen trees or logs with camera traps we recorded the black-bellied pangolin opportunistically in Deng Deng National Park (East Region, Cameroon), a locality within the presumed distribution of the species within Cameroon. We obtained a low trapping rate of 0.063 events per 100 trap-days and the capture probability was one event recorded over 1,571 trap-days (0.0006 captures per day). Deploying camera traps that focus on fallen trees or logs could be explored as a method for detecting black-bellied pangolins.

Pangolins are some of the most overexploited but least studied mammals. The giant pangolin Smutsia gigantea is the largest of the eight pangolin species, measuring up to 180 cm in length and weighing up to 40 kg. It is a nocturnal, solitary species that occurs at low densities and little is known regarding its biology and ecology. It is distributed widely across the rainforests and forest savannah mosaics of equatorial Africa but its exact range extent is unknown. Apart from a single record in Kenya predating 1971, the eastern limit of its range was thought only to extend to central Uganda and western Tanzania. Here we present three spatially separate records confirming the presence of this species in Kenyan Afromontane forests. The three records are c. 120 km apart and c. 500 km east of the nearest confirmed giant pangolin population in Uganda. These records represent a significant range extension for the species and highlight the biodiversity and conservation importance of the Afromontane forests of western Kenya.

Pangolins have long been hunted for food and for their scales, but information on local hunting strategies in African range countries and the patterns of pangolin trafficking around sourcing areas is limited. Such knowledge is vital to inform monitoring approaches and conservation interventions. We administered questionnaires to 367 people from 20 villages around two national parks in Cameroon to gain insights into local hunting practices, and trading and trafficking patterns. We found that tracking was the preferred method of hunting pangolins. Trapping was also used, and setting traps on fallen logs and near burrows improved the likelihood of catching pangolins. The white-bellied pangolin Phataginus tricuspis was the most traded species, and the giant pangolin Smutsia gigantea was the most sought after. We found no evidence of trade in the black-bellied pangolin Phataginus tetradactyla. Most respondents stated that pangolin prices had increased over the last 5 years, and scarcity of pangolins was the primary reason given for this increase. We identified a pangolin scale trafficking network operating from rural communities to neighbouring cities. Although most respondents recognized that hunting pangolins is illegal, c. 30% indicated that they were engaged in pangolin hunting.

The Malayan pangolin (Manis javanica) is a placental mammal and is listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Most previous attempts to breed pangolins in captivity have met with little success because of dietary issues, infections, and other complications, although a previous study reported breeding pangolins in captivity to the third generation. In our previous pangolin genome sequencing data analysis, we obtained a considerable amount of bacterial DNA from a pregnant female Malayan pangolin (named \"UM3\"), which was likely infected by Paraburkholderia fungorum-an agent of biodegradation and bioremediation in agriculture.BackgroundThe Malayan pangolin (Manis javanica) is a placental mammal and is listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Most previous attempts to breed pangolins in captivity have met with little success because of dietary issues, infections, and other complications, although a previous study reported breeding pangolins in captivity to the third generation. In our previous pangolin genome sequencing data analysis, we obtained a considerable amount of bacterial DNA from a pregnant female Malayan pangolin (named \"UM3\"), which was likely infected by Paraburkholderia fungorum-an agent of biodegradation and bioremediation in agriculture.Here, we further confirmed and characterized this bacterial species using PCR, histological staining, whole-genome sequencing, and bioinformatics approaches. PCR assays with in-house designed primer sets and 16S universal primers showed clear positive bands in the cerebrum, cerebellum, lung, and blood of UM3 suggesting that UM3 might have developed septicaemia. Histological staining showed the presence of Gram-negative rod-shaped bacteria in the pangolin brain and lungs, indicating the colonization of the bacteria in these two organs. In addition, PCR screening of UM3's fetal tissues revealed the presence of P. fungorum in the gastrocnemius muscle, but not in other tissues that we examined. We also sequenced and reconstructed the genome of pangolin P. fungorum, which has a genome size of 7.7 Mbps.MethodologyHere, we further confirmed and characterized this bacterial species using PCR, histological staining, whole-genome sequencing, and bioinformatics approaches. PCR assays with in-house designed primer sets and 16S universal primers showed clear positive bands in the cerebrum, cerebellum, lung, and blood of UM3 suggesting that UM3 might have developed septicaemia. Histological staining showed the presence of Gram-negative rod-shaped bacteria in the pangolin brain and lungs, indicating the colonization of the bacteria in these two organs. In addition, PCR screening of UM3's fetal tissues revealed the presence of P. fungorum in the gastrocnemius muscle, but not in other tissues that we examined. We also sequenced and reconstructed the genome of pangolin P. fungorum, which has a genome size of 7.7 Mbps.Our study is the first to present detailed evidence of the presence of P. fungorum in a pangolin and her fetus (although preliminary results were presented in our previous article). Here, we raise the concern that P. fungorum may potentially infect humans, especially YOPI (young, old, pregnant, and immunocompromised) people. Therefore, caution should be exercised when using this bacterial species as biodegradation or bioremediation agents in agriculture.ConclusionOur study is the first to present detailed evidence of the presence of P. fungorum in a pangolin and her fetus (although preliminary results were presented in our previous article). Here, we raise the concern that P. fungorum may potentially infect humans, especially YOPI (young, old, pregnant, and immunocompromised) people. Therefore, caution should be exercised when using this bacterial species as biodegradation or bioremediation agents in agriculture.

This article examines the historical evolution, contemporary dynamics, and future trajectory of China’s legal and judicial framework for pangolin protection. By reviewing over seventy years of regulatory changes, case law, and policy implementation, it outlines three distinct phases: the early emphasis on pangolins as medicinal and export resources (1949–1989); the phase of conflicted protection and utilization under regulatory expansion (1989–2020); and the post-2020 shift toward judicial activism and ecological civil litigation. We then highlight the long-standing contradiction between legislative protection and continued medicinal use, particularly the centuries-old use of pangolins and their derivatives in traditional Chinese medicine, a practice still acknowledged within certain state policies and regulatory frameworks, showing how these inconsistencies enabled persistent illegal exploitation despite regulatory controls. Through systematic analysis of public court records and case databases, the policy historical records reveal a marked increase in environmental public interest litigation since 2020. These lawsuits, often attached to criminal prosecutions, signal a transition from merely punitive approaches to restorative ones—anchored in ecological valuation of species and their services. Case studies illustrate how courts now impose not only wildlife resource loss fees, but also punitive damages and compensation for ecological service function loss. The article will elaborate in detail on the distinctions and interrelations among these types of compensation. The landmark Case No.17 also demonstrates this paradigm shift, wherein courts recognized pangolins’ role in balancing forest ecosystems. However, significant challenges persist. Valuation methodologies lack uniform standards; while the ecological value of pangolins has been recognized, their inherent value as individuals has not been emphasized within the legal system; judicial discretion varies across jurisdictions; and public interest organizations remain underutilized in litigation. Moreover, while the crackdown on organized crime succeeded in curbing mass trafficking, smaller-scale violations tied to cultural consumption for medicine use persist. The article concludes that judicial innovations, such as ecological judicial restoration bases and integration into China’s draft Ecological Environment Code, offer promising pathways forward. To enhance efficacy, it calls for standardization in ecological valuation, strengthened civil society participation, and nuanced differentiation in penal strategies between minor and serious offenses. This study ultimately positions judicial reform as the cornerstone of China’s evolving pangolin conservation strategy.

Anthropogenic and climatic factors affect the survival of animal species. Chinese pangolin is a critically endangered species, and identifying which variables lead to local extinction events is essential for conservation management. Local chronicles in China serve as long‐term monitoring data, providing a perspective to disentangle the roles of human impacts and climate changes in local extinctions. Therefore, we established generalized additive models to identify factors leading to local extinction with historical data from 1700–2000 AD in mainland China. Then we decreased the time scale and constructed extinction risk models using MaxEnt in a 30‐year transect (1970–2000 AD) to further assess extinction probability of extant Chinese pangolin populations. Lastly, we used principal component analysis to assess variation of related anthropogenic and climatic variables. Our results showed that the extinction probability increased with global warming and human population growth. An extinction risk assessment indicated that the population and distribution range of Chinese pangolins had been persistently shrinking in response to highly intensive human activities (main cause) and climate change. PCA results indicated that variability of climatic variables is greater than anthropogenic variables. Overall, the factors causing local extinctions are intensive human interference and drastic climatic fluctuations which induced by the effect of global warming. Approximately 28.10% of extant Chinese pangolins populations are confronted with a notable extinction risk (0.37 ≤ extinction probability≤0.93), specifically those in Southeast China, including Guangdong, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Hunan and Fujian Provinces. To rescue this critically endangered species, we suggest strengthening field investigations, identifying the exact distribution range and population density of Chinese pangolins and further optimizing the network of nature reserves to improve conservation coverage on the landscape scale and alleviate human interference. Conservation practices that concentrate on the viability assessment of scattered populations could help to improve restoration strategies of the Chinese pangolin. This study evaluated the effect of anthropogenic and climatic impacts on local extinctions of Chinese pangolins through 300 years of local chronicles and historical environment data in China. Extinction probability increased with population growth (main cause) and climate warming. A quarter of the extant Chinese pangolin population is exposed to notable extinction risk and we need to improve conservation and restoration strategies.

Wildlife forensics is a relatively underexplored field of science. It provides forensic evidence to support legal investigations involving wildlife crime, such as the trafficking and poaching of animals and/or their goods. The consequences of poaching are not just limited to a decline in animal welfare and include the spread of zoonotic disease, species, cultural and habitat loss, and injury of anti-poaching rangers. Fingermark analysis for the identification of perpetrators of wildlife crimes has not been explored to a great extent despite being a cost-effective, simple-to-use forensic method that is easy to deploy in-field. Pangolins are small, scaly mammals that reside in Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa and are the most heavily trafficked wild mammal in the world. Pangolin scales are consumed, as they are believed to have healing or magical properties. This study aimed to find an effective method of visualising latent fingermarks on pangolin scales. Six standard fingermark powders were tested: two types of black and white powders (regular granular and SupraNano powders) and two metallic powders (aluminium and magneta flake). In addition, three fluorescent powders (fpNatural® 1 and 2 and red fluorescent powder) were investigated. Black gelatine was primarily tested as a lifting apparatus. The study compared the efficacy of black gelatine, two types of tape, and silicone putty lifters in lifting fingermarks on pangolin scales. Lifted fingermarks were then imaged with the Digital Capture Suite DCS®4 (standard) and DCS®5 (fluorescent powders) imaging systems. A further study was conducted evaluating the ability of the three best powders to visualise marks aged for three and seven days. Aluminium and magneta flake powders were significantly more effective than other standard powders, yielding more fingermarks suitable for comparison and search on fingermark databases. Red fluorescent powder was the most effective of the fluorescent powders. The black gelatine lifter was not noticeably more effective than the two tape lifters tested. It is estimated that tape would be the optimal alternative lifting tool to use if black gelatine melts on hot wildlife crime scenes. The impact of this study is that these techniques can be deployed in remote areas where they are urgently needed to fight crime, providing additional forensic tools to anti-poaching agents on the front line tackling pangolin poaching. This will lead to an increase in convictions of pangolin poachers, which could lead to dismantling pangolin supply chains, prosecuting organised crime syndicates, and preventing further pangolin poaching. •Pangolins are the most trafficked animal globally, largely exploited for their scales.•This study examines powders and lifters to visualise fingermarks on pangolin scales.•Aluminium, magneta flake and red fluorescent powder were most successful.•Forensic tape and gelatine lifters were more successful than Isomark forming putty.•The quality of ridge detail visualised significantly decreased over seven days, though ridge detail suitable for comparison and search was observed after a week.