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\"A star science journalist with Parkinson's reveals the inner workings of this perplexing disease. Seven million people worldwide suffer from Parkinson's--with sixty thousand new cases diagnosed each year in the U.S. alone--and it remains an enigma, with doctors, researchers, and patients hunting for a cure. In Brain Storms, award-winning journalist Jon Palfreman tells their story, a story that takes on urgency when he is diagnosed with the debilitating illness. Palfreman chronicles how scientists have labored to crack the mystery of what was once called \"the shaking palsy,\" from the earliest clinical descriptions to the cutting edge of molecular neuroscience. He charts the victories and setbacks of a massive international effort to best the disease, referred to as one of the best windows into the brain itself. Brain Storms is also a profoundly personal investigation into Palfreman's own struggles and those of others living with Parkinson's. From a professional ballet dancer who \"tricks\" her body to move freely again, to a \"frozen\" patient who cannot walk but astounds doctors when he is able to ride a bicycle, Palfreman shines a light on the varied and ingenious ways patients cope with having their bodies steadily taken away from them. The race is on to discover a means to stop or reverse neurodegenerative conditions like Parkinson's and Alzheimer's. Brain Storms is the long-overdue, riveting detective story of that race, and a passionate, insightful account into the lives of those affected\"--Provided by publisher.

In Parkinson’s disease (PD) there is a selective degeneration of neuromelanin-containing neurons, especially substantia nigra dopaminergic neurons. In humans, neuromelanin accumulates with age, the latter being the main risk factor for PD. The contribution of neuromelanin to PD pathogenesis remains unknown because, unlike humans, common laboratory animals lack neuromelanin. Synthesis of peripheral melanins is mediated by tyrosinase, an enzyme also present at low levels in the brain. Here we report that overexpression of human tyrosinase in rat substantia nigra results in age-dependent production of human-like neuromelanin within nigral dopaminergic neurons, up to levels reached in elderly humans. In these animals, intracellular neuromelanin accumulation above a specific threshold is associated to an age-dependent PD phenotype, including hypokinesia, Lewy body-like formation and nigrostriatal neurodegeneration. Enhancing lysosomal proteostasis reduces intracellular neuromelanin and prevents neurodegeneration in tyrosinase-overexpressing animals. Our results suggest that intracellular neuromelanin levels may set the threshold for the initiation of PD. It is unclear if neuromelanin plays a role in Parkinson’s disease pathogenesis since common laboratory animals lack this pigment. Authors show here that overexpression of human tyrosinase in the substantia nigra of rats resulted in an age-dependent production of human-like neuromelanin within nigral dopaminergic neurons and is associated with a Parkinson’s disease phenotype when allowed to accumulate above a specific threshold.

The concept of ‘idiopathic’ Parkinson’s disease (PD) as a single entity has been challenged with the identification of several clinical subtypes, pathogenic genes and putative causative environmental agents. In addition to classic motor symptoms, non-motor manifestations (such as rapid eye movement sleep disorder, anosmia, constipation and depression) appear at prodromic/premotor stage and evolve, along with cognitive impairment and dysautonomia, as the disease progresses, often dominating the advanced stages of the disease. The key molecular pathogenic mechanisms include α-synuclein misfolding and aggregation, mitochondrial dysfunction, impairment of protein clearance (associated with deficient ubiquitin-proteasome and autophagy-lysosomal systems), neuroinflammation and oxidative stress. The involvement of dopaminergic as well as noradrenergic, glutamatergic, serotonergic and adenosine pathways provide insights into the rich and variable clinical phenomenology associated with PD and the possibility of alternative therapeutic approaches beyond traditional dopamine replacement therapies.One of the biggest challenges in the development of potential neuroprotective therapies has been the lack of reliable and sensitive biomarkers of progression. Immunotherapies such as the use of vaccination or monoclonal antibodies directed against aggregated, toxic α-synuclein.as well as anti-aggregation or protein clearance strategies are currently investigated in clinical trials. The application of glucagon-like peptide one receptor agonists, specific PD gene target agents (such as GBA or LRRK2 modifiers) and other potential disease modifying drugs provide cautious optimism that more effective therapies are on the horizon. Emerging therapies, such as new symptomatic drugs, innovative drug delivery systems and novel surgical interventions give hope to patients with PD about their future outcomes and prognosis.

\"We decided to write this book to provide a useful guide to two groups of people. Firstly, for those diagnosed with Parkinson's who are looking for a safe form of exercise that could work for them. ... a number of clients ... tell us how their increased flexibility and strength as well as their improved balance and walking have helped them to remain independent. Secondly, we hope this book will also be enjoyed by Pilates instructors who are wondering how they can best help a client who comes in with a diagnosis of Parkinson's.\" -- Introduction [ix].

The exact cause of Parkinson disease is unknown, but it is assumed to be the result of a combination of environmental influences superimposed on genetic predisposition or susceptibility (Table 2).14-16 There is increasing evidence that the genetic and environmental insults leading to [Jankovic J. Parkinson] disease commonly lead to abnormal forms of a normal protein, α-synuclein, which seems to contribute to cell death.16,23 The onset of Parkinson disease can be categorized as juvenile (age < 21 yr), early onset (21-50 yr) and late onset (generally > 60 yr).24,25 The juvenile form is rare, is often familial (in as many as 50% of cases), is most frequently associated with a parkin gene mutation and has an atypical presentation.25,26 Of patients with Parkinson disease, 10%-16% have an affected first- or second-degree relative; first-degree relatives may have double the risk of Parkinson disease compared with the general population.26-29 In early- and late-onset Parkinson disease, the frequency of a positive family history is not statistically different.24 In advanced Parkinson disease, the efficacy of levodopa can decline and fluctuate throughout the day switching between \"on\" and \"off' medication periods.92 The motor and nonmotor fluctuations mirror those seen in levodopa plasma concentrations resulting from levodopa's short half-life.93 Providing continuous dopaminergic stimulation is the goal of treating fluctuations in patients with advanced Parkinson disease.94-96 We now have surgical options, including deep brain stimulation and levodopacarbidopa intestinal gel, to provide treatment to such patients. Currently, deep brain stimulation has the highest level of evidence with the largest number of randomized controlled trials.97 Emerging therapies currently being studied in Parkinson disease are listed in Appendix 7, available at www.cmaj.ca/lookup/suppl/doi :10.1503/cmaj.151179/-/DC1. The response to deep brain stimulation is equal to the best response on levodopa, but more effective than medical therapy in improving \"on\" time without troublesome dyskinesias.101,102 Deep brain stimulation typically improves levodoparesponsive symptoms (e.g., tremor, bradykinesia, rigidity) and on-off fluctuations and dyskinesias, whereas impairments in gait, balance and speech are less likely to improve. Patients should be considered for deep brain stimulation only if adequate trials of multiple medications for Parkinson disease (e.g., levodopa-carbidopa, dopamine agonists, monoamine oxidase B inhibitors and amantadine) have been unsuccessful.100 Although duration of efficacy is not clearly established, patients who undergo deep brain stimulation may have sustained benefit for at least 10 years.100 A recent study suggests that deep brain stimulation for Parkinson disease may be offered earlier for patients (mean age 52 yr, disease duration 7.5 yr) just beginning to have motor fluctuations.103 Thalamic deep brain stimulation may be considered as an option in patients who predominantly have disabling tremor where subthalamic nucleus stimulation cannot be performed.57

A colorful and absorbing portrait of James Parkinson -- after whom Parkinson's disease is named -- and the turbulent, intellectually vibrant world of Georgian London. Author Cherry Lewis examines Parkinson's three seemingly disparate passions: medicine, politics, and fossils. As a political radical, Parkinson was interrogated over a plot to kill King George III, putting himself in danger of being exiled. He helped Edward Jenner set up smallpox vaccination stations across London, saving countless lives. He also wrote the first scientific study of fossils in English, jump-starting a craze for fossil hunting in Britain. Parkinson was truly one of the intellectual pioneers of 'the age of wonder, ' forgotten to history -- until now. -- Adapted from book jacket.

Parkinson's disease is the second most common neurodegenerative disease and its prevalence has been projected to double over the next 30 years. An accurate diagnosis of Parkinson's disease remains challenging and the characterisation of the earliest stages of the disease is ongoing. Recent developments over the past 5 years include the validation of clinical diagnostic criteria, the introduction and testing of research criteria for prodromal Parkinson's disease, and the identification of genetic subtypes and a growing number of genetic variants associated with risk of Parkinson's disease. Substantial progress has been made in the development of diagnostic biomarkers, and genetic and imaging tests are already part of routine protocols in clinical practice, while novel tissue and fluid markers are under investigation. Parkinson's disease is evolving from a clinical to a biomarker-supported diagnostic entity, for which earlier identification is possible, different subtypes with diverse prognosis are recognised, and novel disease-modifying treatments are in development.

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder, characterized by selective degeneration of dopaminergic nigrostriatal neurons. Most of the existing pharmacological approaches in PD consider replenishing striatal dopamine. It has been reported that activation of the cholinergic system has neuroprotective effects on dopaminergic neurons, and human α7-nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7-nAChR) stimulation may offer a potential therapeutic approach in PD. Our recent in-vitro studies demonstrated that curcumin causes significant potentiation of the function of α7-nAChRs expressed in Xenopus oocytes. In this study, we conducted in vivo experiments to assess the role of the α7-nAChR on the protective effects of curcumin in an animal model of PD. Intra-striatal injection of 6-hydroxydopmine (6-OHDA) was used to induce Parkinsonism in rats. Our results demonstrated that intragastric curcumin treatment (200 mg/kg) significantly improved the abnormal motor behavior and offered neuroprotection against the reduction of dopaminergic neurons, as determined by tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) immunoreactivity in the substantia nigra and caudoputamen. The intraperitoneal administration of the α7-nAChR-selective antagonist methyllycaconitine (1 µg/kg) reversed the neuroprotective effects of curcumin in terms of both animal behavior and TH immunoreactivity. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that curcumin has a neuroprotective effect in a 6-hydroxydopmine (6-OHDA) rat model of PD via an α7-nAChR-mediated mechanism.

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the most common movement disorder with motor and nonmotor signs. The current therapeutic regimen for PD is mainly symptomatic as the etio-pathophysiology has not been fully elucidated. A variety of animal models has been generated to study different aspects of the disease for understanding the pathogenesis and therapeutic development. The disease model can be generated through neurotoxin-based or genetic-based approaches in a wide range of animals such as non-human primates (NHP), rodents, zebrafish, Caenorhabditis (C.) elegans, and drosophila. Cellular-based disease model is frequently used because of the ease of manipulation and suitability for large-screen assays. In neurotoxin-induced models, chemicals such as 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA), 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP), rotenone, and paraquat are used to recapitulate the disease. Genetic manipulation of PD-related genes, such as α-Synuclein(SNCA), Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), Pten-Induced Kinase 1 (PINK1), Parkin(PRKN), and Protein deglycase (DJ-1) Are used in the transgenic models. An emerging model that combines both genetic- and neurotoxin-based methods has been generated to study the role of the immune system in the pathogenesis of PD. Here, we discuss the advantages and limitations of the different PD models and their utility for different research purposes.