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"Parks Singapore Planning."
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The Relationship between Natural Park Usage and Happiness Does Not Hold in a Tropical City-State
Previous studies have shown that contact with urban green spaces can produce positive effects on people's stress, health and well-being levels. However, much of this research has been conducted in the temperate regions of Europe or North America. Additionally, most studies have only compared the effects of urban and natural areas on health and well-being, but not made a finer distinction between different types of urban green spaces. We tested the relationship between well-being and the access or use of different types of green spaces among young adults in Singapore, a tropical city-state. The results showed that extraversion and emotional stability increased subjective well-being, positive affect and life satisfaction and decreased stress and negative affect. In addition, we found that level of physical activity increased positive affect and health problems increased negative affect. Neither access to green spaces nor the use of green spaces in Singapore significantly affected the well-being metrics considered, contradicting findings in the temperate regions of the world. We hypothesize that the differences in temperature and humidity and the higher greenery and biodiversity levels outside parks in Singapore could explain this phenomenon. Our results thus question the universality of the relationship between well-being and park usage and highlight the need for more research into the multifaceted effects of green spaces on well-being in the tropics.
Journal Article
Urban Heat Island Mitigation: GIS-Based Analysis for a Tropical City Singapore
To reduce the pace of climate change and achieve the goals set in Paris Agreement by 2030, Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries have started to prioritize sustainability as one of their top agendas. Numerous studies have demonstrated that one of the most important issues that must be addressed to halt climate change is the urban heat island (UHI). Given the different mitigation strategies available, the focus of our study here is to assess the influence of green spaces and Green Mark commercial buildings on Singapore’s temperature distribution using non-exhaustive factors related to energy consumption and efficiency. Additionally, this paper examines the effectiveness of green spaces and commercial buildings in reducing the rate of temperature change. This study uses ArcGIS software to map data, perform spatial analysis through cloud-based mapping, and produce visual representations with geographic information systems (GIS) to promote greater insight on the formulation of goals and policy making for strategic management. In comparison to non-commercial districts, our findings show that commercial districts have the lowest percentage of temperature change, an estimated 1.6 percent, due to a high concentration of green spaces and Green Mark commercial buildings. Our research also helps to close the research gaps in determining the efficacy of Green Mark commercial buildings, skyrise greeneries, gardens, and national parks. It also helps to minimize the bottleneck of expensive building costs and environmental damage that would have occurred from a design flaw found too late in the urban planning and construction process.
Journal Article
How ‘hot’ is too hot? Evaluating acceptable outdoor thermal comfort ranges in an equatorial urban park
Urban green spaces offer vital ecosystem services such as regulating elevated temperatures in cities. Less information exists, however, on how urban green spaces influence outdoor thermal comfort (OTC), which is dependent on people’s perceptions of the complex interactions amongst ambient humidity, wind and both air and radiant temperatures. In this study, we analysed an existing OTC dataset compiled within a large Singapore urban park and calibrated OTC thresholds for physiological equivalent temperatures (PET) by analysing PET against thermal perception survey responses from the park visitors (n = 1508). We examined OTC according to (i) neutral, (ii) acceptable and (iii) preferred temperatures, where respondents felt ‘comfortable’ outdoors in the park. We estimated that neutral temperature, when all respondents experience neither heat nor cold stress, is 26.2 °C; acceptable temperatures, when only slight heat or cold stress is experienced, range between 21.6 and 31.6 °C; and preferred (‘ideal’) temperature for all respondents is 24.2 °C. Respondents residing for more than 6 months in Singapore achieved thermal neutrality, suggesting that a greater degree of thermal adaptation likely developed during acclimatisation to local climate through a combination of physiological, behavioural and psychological circumstances. Comparisons with other OTC studies showed differences in synoptic climates are linked to variations in the magnitude and ranges of perceived PET. Lastly, respondents in this study perceived lower neutral and preferred temperatures compared to respondents surveyed over a variety of urban land use categories in another local study. The differences in neutral and preferred temperatures between studies suggest that lower park temperatures and different environmental attitudes influence perceived OTC.
Journal Article
Towards a “City in Nature”: Evaluating the Cultural Ecosystem Services Approach Using Online Public Participation GIS to Support Urban Green Space Management
The concept of cultural ecosystem services has been increasingly influential in both environmental research and policy decision making, such as for urban green spaces. However, its popular definitions tend to conflate “services” with “benefits”, making it challenging for planners to employ them directly to manage urban green spaces. Thus, attempts have been made to redefine cultural ecosystem services as the function of cultural activities in environmental spaces which result in people’s enjoyment of cultural ecosystem benefits. The operability of such a redefinition needs to be evaluated, which this study seeks to achieve with Bishan-Ang Mo Kio Park in Singapore presenting itself as a prime case study research area. Transdisciplinary mixed methods of a public participation geographic information system, which leverages on spatial data from public park users, and social media text mining analysis via Google reviews were used. A wealth of cultural ecosystem services and benefits were reported in the park, especially the recreational and aesthetic services and experiential benefits. Policy and methodological implications for future research and urban park developments were considered. Overall, this paper would recommend the employment of the redefined cultural ecosystem services approach to generate relational, data-driven and actionable insights to better support future urban green space management.
Journal Article
Building biodiversity: drivers of bird and butterfly diversity on tropical urban roof gardens
Conservation of faunal diversity in highly urbanized landscapes is facilitated through the integration of anthropogenic and natural elements in urban green spaces. Roof gardens have the potential to provide resources for urban wildlife populations, yet they typically offer marginal ecological conditions relative to ground‐level habitat so it is necessary to identify the factors associated with focal taxa diversity and abundance to better inform their planning, design, and management. We conducted 20 monthly surveys of diurnal bird and butterfly visitors to 30 urban roof gardens in the tropical city‐state of Singapore. Sixty‐five site variables were evaluated for their relative importance to four community diversity metrics (species richness, Simpson's diversity, abundance, and functional dispersion) using a conceptual framework relevant to key stakeholders involved in roof garden planning, design, and management. Surveys from a total of 80 observation hours per site recorded more than 23,000 independent bird and butterfly encounters, comprising 53 bird and 57 butterfly species, which represents 13% and 18% of the avifauna and butterfly fauna in Singapore, respectively. Twenty‐four species (12 birds, 12 butterflies) were considered uncommon or rare. Reproductive behaviors (courtship, mating, or nesting) were noted in 35 species (20 birds, 15 butterflies). Understory birds were under‐represented, whereas understory butterflies were over‐represented compared to the overall Singapore fauna. Early morning noise showed strong negative linear correlations with diversity of both taxa, but this variable was also negatively associated with planted area, perhaps indicating proxy effects. Faunal diversity decreased asymptotically with height. Both managed and spontaneous floral diversity had clear positive effects on bird and butterfly diversity. Our results provide clear indication that tropical urban roof gardens can support a diverse subset of the bird and butterfly species assemblages. Site height, site area, and plant selection are suggested to play dominant roles in determining the attractiveness of roof gardens for wildlife. To a first approximation, roof gardens should be built lower than 50 m in height and contain planted areas larger than 1100 m2, as well as shrubs for birds and both managed and spontaneous nectar plant species for butterflies.
Journal Article
The green open space development model and associated use behaviors in dense urban settings: Lessons from Hong Kong and Singapore
Green open space is addressed as an important urban planning strategy to ameliorate the negative environmental impacts of high density. The article presents a comparative study of green open space development models and associated use behaviors between Hong Kong and Singapore. The two cities represent two distinct models: “Concrete Jungle” where green open spaces are separated from built-up areas and “Garden City” where green open spaces are integrated in buildings. The research argues that the two distinct urban development models are shaping two types of use behaviors. The detached green open space in Hong Kong engendered active visits with high intentions and sensations; the integrated green open spaces in Singapore, on the other hand, caused passive visits with low intentions and sensations. This research draws attention to the overwhelming greenery in urban development that might attenuate the therapeutic function for healing and restoration. The spatial arrangement of green space distribution should encourage people’s intentions and aspirations for an active visit with social or physical activities. The planning and design of open space should also optimize microclimate conditions (such as shading, cross-ventilation and thermal comfort) to facilitate longer stays.
Journal Article
Mangrove forests store high densities of carbon across the tropical urban landscape of Singapore
Tropical forested ecosystems provide multiple ecosystem services to rural and urban landscapes, with carbon storage gaining particular attention. Deforestation due to rural-urban transitions may lead to a reduction in carbon storage ability. Coastal mangrove forests are particularly at risk from deforestation due to their location in the rapidly urbanizing coastal zone, and the city state of Singapore is an extreme example, losing as much as 90Â % of its original mangrove cover due to land reclamation and reservoir construction. Knowledge of mangrove ecosystem services may allow better conservation, restoration and incorporation of remaining mangrove patches into the urban landscape. Focusing on the regulating ecosystem service of carbon storage, mangrove carbon stocks have been estimated for Singapore using a combination of field and remote sensing techniques. Biomass carbon showed substantial spatial variation, with old, contiguous mangrove patches containing a higher density of biomass carbon than fragmented, river-fringing or restored mangroves. In total, national biomass carbon equated to 116,117.1Â megagrams of carbon (Mg C), and a coarse estimate of the total carbon stock (including soil carbon) suggests that Singaporeâs mangroves may store 450,571.7Â Mg C. While lower than other regional estimates focused on natural, oceanic mangroves, this is a significant carbon stock for a disturbed, urban mangrove system, and may be equivalent to the average annual carbon emissions of 621,000 residents. This analysis, alongside a review of other urban forest studies, highlights the importance of forested ecosystems such as mangroves in providing a carbon storage ecosystem service to urban areas.
Journal Article
Vegetation on and around large-scale buildings positively influences native tropical bird abundance and bird species richness
High population growth in the tropics is driving urbanisation, removing diverse natural ecosystems. This is causing native species to suffer while introduced synanthropes flourish. City planners are developing urban greenspace networks, in part trying to address this issue. Architects contribute to these greenspace networks by designing elevated and ground level green spaces on large-scale buildings. However, little evidence is available on whether building green spaces support native fauna. This is true for birds in tropical Singapore that support important ecosystem services and have existence value. Therefore, in this study, we conducted bird surveys and statistical analyses to determine, if and how vegetation on three building green space types (ground gardens, roof gardens and green walls) have a positive impact on native or introduced bird species. We found that elevated greenery (roof gardens and green walls) on large-scale buildings supported a higher richness of birds and abundance of urban native birds than control roofs and walls without vegetation. Ground gardens supported similar levels of native species as roof gardens but also a larger proportion of generalist synanthropes. However, we found no tropical forest habitat specialists across any space type. Therefore, we recommend roof gardens and ground gardens as a potential space for urban natives outside of a less competitive ground-level urban environment. Our study also found certain building design elements (height of elevated space, presence of specific plants) supported different species groups. Therefore, we suggest that these ecological requirements for different species groups are considered when designing a building’s green space.
Journal Article
Status of the long-tailed macaque Macaca fascicularis in Singapore and implications for management
The long-tailed macaque (
Macaca fascicularis
) population of the island-state of Singapore consists of ca. 1,218–1,454 individuals. About seventy percent of the population (ca. 1,027 individuals) is concentrated in both Bukit Timah and Central Catchment Nature Reserves, a system of reservoirs and forest reserves located in the center of Singapore. This core population resides mainly along perimeter forest areas of the reserve system, which is bordered by residential and recreational areas (e.g., parks and golf courses) and encircled by expressways. Periphery sub-populations (ca. 427 individuals) persist in forest fragments throughout Singapore mainland and on 5 offshore islands. Much of the Singaporean macaque population overlaps with human settlement and these commensal groups are mainly distributed close to roads, parks and residential areas. At least 70% of these groups are habituated to human presence and at least 50% to food provisioning. Moreover, commensal groups have more individuals and have higher infant:adult female ratios than non-commensal groups. The close association of habituated macaque groups living in human environments has led to increasing human-macaque conflict in Singapore. The overlap is also associated with human-induced population loss resulting from road accidents (2.4%); and trapping efforts (14%) aimed at ameliorating conflict issues. Consequently, it is important to better understand how humans are affecting macaque populations. In order to mitigate human-macaque conflict and at the same maintain a sustainable macaque population in Singapore, there is an urgent need for wildlife management strategies aimed at minimizing the extent of human–macaque conflict. Such strategies should include designing appropriate buffers around reserve areas, revised urban development plans, and managing the behavior of people interfacing with macaques.
Journal Article