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We characterised plastisphere microbial communities in the polishing pond of a municipal wastewater treatment plant, applying prokaryotic 16S rRNA gene, eukaryotic 18S rRNA gene and fungal ITS2 region sequencing to identify changes in microbial biofilm community compositions over time. Pondwater and biofilm from linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), nylon-6 (PA), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polylactic acid (PLA), oxo-degradable linear low-density polyethylene (OXO) and glass were sampled after 2, 6, 26 and 52 weeks of constant immersion. Microbial communities in ambient pondwater differed significantly from those forming biofilms on solid substrates. Biofilm age and depth in the water influenced microbial community compositions. However, no substrate-specific microbial communities were found among glass and plastic polymer types, regardless of artificial ageing. All substrates housed taxa associated with microbes previously reported to biodegrade plastics, being most abundant at two and 52 weeks for bacteria and fungi, respectively. Potential pathogens were found on all substrates, also being most abundant at two and 52 weeks for bacteria and eukaryotes, respectively. Our study highlights that the volume of plastics, more than its polymer form, may be most important when considering plastic's potential impacts on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and for public health.

Global plastic production has increased exponentially since manufacturing commenced in the 1950’s, including polymer types infused with diverse additives and fillers. While the negative impacts of plastics are widely reported, particularly on marine vertebrates, impacts on microbial life remain poorly understood. Plastics impact microbiomes directly, exerting toxic effects, providing supplemental carbon sources and acting as rafts for microbial colonisation and dispersal. Indirect consequences include increased environmental shading, altered compositions of host communities and disruption of host organism or community health, hormone balances and immune responses. The isolation and application of plastic-degrading microbes are of substantial interest yet little evidence supports the microbial biodegradation of most high molecular weight synthetic polymers. Over 400 microbial species have been presumptively identified as capable of plastic degradation, but evidence for the degradation of highly prevalent polymers including polypropylene, nylon, polystyrene and polyvinyl chloride must be treated with caution; most studies fail to differentiate losses caused by the leaching or degradation of polymer monomers, additives or fillers. Even where polymer degradation is demonstrated, such as for polyethylene terephthalate, the ability of microorganisms to degrade more highly crystalline forms of the polymer used in commercial plastics appears limited. Microbiomes frequently work in conjunction with abiotic factors such as heat and light to impact the structural integrity of polymers and accessibility to enzymatic attack. Consequently, there remains much scope for extremophile microbiomes to be explored as a source of plastic-degrading enzymes and microorganisms. We propose a best-practice workflow for isolating and reporting plastic-degrading taxa from diverse environmental microbiomes, which should include multiple lines of evidence supporting changes in polymer structure, mass loss, and detection of presumed degradation products, along with confirmation of microbial strains and enzymes (and their associated genes) responsible for high molecular weight plastic polymer degradation. Such approaches are necessary for enzymatic degraders of high molecular weight plastic polymers to be differentiated from organisms only capable of degrading the more labile carbon within predominantly amorphous plastics, plastic monomers, additives or fillers.

Protistan pathogens have been found to infect populations of some large brown macroalgae. Infection could reduce the ability of macroalgae to withstand hydrodynamic pressures through weakening tissues and reducing flexibility. Widespread mortality of macroalgae if disease outbreaks were to occur could have important flow-on consequences for biodiversity and ecosystem function. Recent discoveries of the protistan pathogen Maullinia infecting the ecologically keystone southern bull kelp Durvillaea in Chile, Australia, and on Marion Island, raise the possibility that this pathogen is dispersing across ocean basins with buoyant hosts. To determine whether Maullinia also infects southern bull kelp in New Zealand, samples of gall-like tissue from Durvillaea antarctica, D. poha, and D. willana were collected from intertidal sites, and genetic analyses (sequencing of partial 18S rRNA) carried out. Maullinia infections were detected in all three species of Durvillaea. Phylogenetic analyses show a close relationship of New Zealand Maullinia to M. braseltonii previously detected in Chile and on Marion Island. Based on its genetic similarity to distant lineages and its presence on buoyant hosts that have been shown to drift long distances at seas, we infer that Maullinia has dispersed across the Southern Ocean through rafting of infected bull kelp. Understanding the capacity of pathogens to disperse across oceans is critical part of forecasting and managing ecosystem responses to environmental change.

The bearded fireworm, Hermodice carunculata, is a common species in the marine annelid taxon Amphinomidae. It has a widespread distribution throughout the Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean, Mediterranean and Red Seas. We review its environmental tolerances, defence mechanisms and feeding habits to evaluate its potential to survive in changing ocean conditions, to increasingly emerge as a nuisance species and to invade new geographic areas. Hermodice carunculata tolerates a wide range of environmental conditions, including temperature, salinity, oxygen saturation and various types of pollution. It has few natural predators because it is protected by its sharp chaetae and probably by toxins. Hermodice carunculata is best known for consuming live cnidarians, and has been implicated in transmitting coral pathogens, but it also feeds non-selectively on detritus. In the short term, we predict that H. carunculata will be able to withstand many future ecological challenges and possibly contribute to coral reef decline. In the long term, ocean acidification may negatively impact its defence mechanisms and survival. Its invasive potential may be significant. We highlight the gaps in our knowledge about the reproduction and development of this species, the nature and origin of its toxins and role of microbes in their feeding behaviour and defensive strategies.

Elevated transmission rate of pathogens and parasites is considered one of the major costs of sociality in birds. However, greater risk of infection in colonial birds might be compensated by specific immune adaptations. Here, we predicted that nestlings raised in larger colonies should invest more in their immune function. To test this hypothesis, we manipulated colony size and conduced cross-fostering experiment in a colonial waterbird, the common tern Sterna hirundo. Establishment of different size colonies under uniform environmental conditions was induced by providing large and small patches of attractive nesting area for terns (floating rafts). Then, pairs of clutches were swapped between large and small tern colonies, and skin-swelling response to phytohaemagglutinin (PHA) was assessed for nestlings from experimental and control broods. Contrary to our expectations, we found a negative effect of foster colony size on nestling PHA response (nestlings raised in the larger colony had lower PHA response). In addition, nestling PHA response correlated negatively with heterophil/lymphocyte ratio used as a measure of physiological stress. This suggested that low PHA response of nestlings raised in the larger colony could be mediated by an elevated level of social stress. We suggest that depression of immune function via social stress may constitute a strong selective pressure against large colony size in the common tern, and possibly in other colonial species. We also recommend that this largely overlooked cost of sociality should be considered in the further studies on the evolution and ecology of avian coloniality.

Freshwater sports expose practitioners to pathogens in the water environment and may result in infection. In French Brittany, these infections are particularly worrying, especially since 2016 with an increase in the incidence of leptospirosis reaching 1 case per 100,000 inhabitants, which represents the highest incidence observed since 1920. We aimed to estimate the prevalence of infectious diseases related to freshwater sports practice and to identify the factors associated with these infections among freshwater sports licensees in Brittany, France. From March 18, 2019, to May 8, 2019, we interviewed freshwater sports licensees (online study) and club presidents and instructors (phone study) in Brittany. Licensee participants were 18 years old or more and practiced at least one freshwater sport in one of the 79 Brittany clubs. We used logistic regression models to study the association between our variables of interest and potential risk factors. In total, 551 licensees (20.3% of the total number of licensees) and 38 clubs (48.1%) were surveyed. Among the licensees, 29 (5.3%) reported being diagnosed with leptospirosis, of which 12 (41.3%) occurred in the last 5 years. The most reported symptoms were skin irritation/itchy skin (24.3%) and 39 individuals (7.1%) reported at least one hospitalization in their lifetime for a disease related to freshwater sports. The occurrence of leptospirosis was negatively associated with boarding from a pontoon (odds ratio (OR)=0.20, 95% confidence interval (95% CI) 0.06–0.56), practicing for less than 4 years (OR=0.17, 95% CI 0.04–0.56) compared to more than 10 years, and the occurrence of leptospirosis was positively associated with taking a soapy shower after practice (OR=4.38, 95% CI 1.90–10.51). Eskimo roll was positively associated with the occurrence of otitis and conjunctivitis (OR=3.22, 95% CI 1.82–6.03), and skin irritation/itchy skin (OR=1.66, 95% CI 0.99–2.84). Otitis, conjunctivitis, and skin irritation/itchy skin are the most commonly reported freshwater sport-related diseases in French Brittany. Despite a good level of knowledge of prevention measures, their implementation by licensees and clubs remains low. Further studies are needed to identify practices associated with infectious risk in freshwater sports.

The study of lipid rafts allowed us to take a new look at the morphology, organization and functioning of membranes, both of animal and plant origin. However, lipid rafts and their function in the cell membranes of plants are poorly understood in comparison with the membranes of animal cells. The protective function of the plant cell is of great importance for the body as a whole because plants lead an attached mode of life. To date, it is known that lipid rafts are involved in the membrane mechanisms of cell protection in response to negative effects. In this review, we summarized the literature data showing the participation of lipid rafts of plant membranes (plasmalemma, Golgi complex membranes, chloroplasts, mitochondria, and vacuoles) in the protective function of cells.

Six hundred and thirty-four objects related to the Great Japan Tsunami of 2011 that arrived in North America and the Hawaiian archipelago were studied for the diversity of attached marine life. Objects included vessels, totes, buoys, docks, post-and-beam wood, and many other items associated with Tohoku coastal communities on Japan's Honshu Island. Object arrival over time demonstrated a relatively consistent pattern of spring pulse landings. Nearly 300 species of marine invertebrates, protists, and fish have been detected on the debris field since 2012. Remarkably, at least seven new species of marine life have been detected on Japanese Tsunami Marine Debris (JTMD). Invertebrate diversity was dominated by six groups: mollusks (bivalves, gastropods, and chitons), polychaetes (marine worms), cnidarians (hydroids and sea anemones), bryozoans (moss animals), crustaceans, and sponges. Cumulative species richness mirrored the annual debris arrivals in spring, resulting in staircase-like pulses. Eight invertebrate species occurred on 35 or more objects. More than 50% of all objects with living species transported the Mediterranean mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis, a 20th century invasion into Japanese waters. The bryozoan Scruparia ambigua was also very common and occurred on one-third of all objects. Adding to the expectation that a subset of the marine fauna from the Tohoku coast would be transported on JTMD, a guild of nearly 40 species was acquired by the debris from south of the Tohoku coast during ocean rafting. These species appeared to have largely settled as larvae while the debris drifted into more southern waters. The number of southern species appearing on JTMD more than doubled between 2012 (3 species), 2013 (11 species), and 2014 and later (27 species), suggesting that the debris continued to take a wider and longer circuitous path through lower latitudes over time.