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Pergamon and the Hellenistic kingdoms of the ancient world
\"The Hellenistic Age spanned the three momentous centuries from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. to the crowning of Emperor Augustus and the establishment of the Roman Empire. This splendidly illustrated volume examines the rich diversity of art forms--including sculpture in marble, bronze, and terracotta; gold jewelry; engraved gems; and coins--throughout the Hellenistic kingdoms of ancient Greece, and especially in the great city of Pergamon (in present-day Turkey). Featuring more than 250 objects from major museums around the world, including the renowned collection from the Pergamon Museum in Berlin, and essays by an international team of specialists, this book describes the historical context in which these sumptuous works of art were created, and provides a new understanding of this period of masterful artistic accomplishment.\"--Publisher's description.
Book
Pergamon As It Once Was: A Virtual Journey into Ancient City and an Immersive Experience with AI Integration
This paper introduces an integrated digital reconstruction of the ancient city of Pergamon, combining Virtual Reality (VR), Artificial Intelligence (AI), and photorealistic 3D modeling to establish a historically informed and immersive virtual environment. Beginning with the production of precise architectural plans using AutoCAD®, the project develops detailed three-dimensional models of major Hellenistic and Roman-era structures—such as the Temple of Athena, the Altar of Zeus, and the Pergamon Theatre—through 3ds Max® and Blender®, followed by their spatial deployment in Unreal Engine®, incorporating terrain data, realistic lighting, and authentic textures. To elevate user engagement, historically accurate avatars were created using Character Creator® and animated with iClone®, while AI capabilities were integrated via Unreal Engine® and Convai® to allow real-time, context-sensitive interaction with users. These AI-driven characters function as narrative agents, guiding visitors through the virtual city and delivering interpretive content tied to specific landmarks. The resulting platform not only reconstructs architectural forms but also revives elements of social life and public space, offering an experiential mode of engagement with ancient urbanism. By uniting archaeological data, digital media, and conversational AI, this study exemplifies how emerging technologies can expand both the pedagogical and experiential dimensions of cultural heritage interpretation.
Journal Article
Attalid aesthetics: the Pergamene ‘baroque’ reconsidered
In this paper, I explore the literary aesthetics of Attalid Pergamon, one of the Ptolemies’ fiercest cultural rivals in the Hellenistic period. Traditionally, scholars have reconstructed Pergamene poetry from the city’s grand and monumental sculptural programme, hypothesizing an underlying aesthetic dichotomy between the two kingdoms: Alexandrian ‘refinement’ versus the Pergamene ‘baroque’. In this paper, I critically reassess this view by exploring surviving scraps of Pergamene poetry: an inscribed encomiastic epigram celebrating the Olympic victory of a certain Attalus (IvP I.10) and an inscribed dedicatory epigram featuring a speaking Satyr (SGO I.06/02/05). By examining these poems’ sophisticated engagements with the literary past and contemporary scholarship, I challenge the idea of a simple opposition between the two kingdoms. In reality, the art and literature of both political centres display a similar capacity to embrace both the refined and the baroque. In conclusion, I ask how this analysis affects our interpretation of the broader aesthetic landscape of the Hellenistic era and suggest that the literature of both capitals belongs to a larger system of elite poetry which stretched far and wide across the Hellenistic world.
Journal Article
Philetairos Ktistes and Pergamon’s Civic Memory in the Post-Attalid Period
This paper provides a reappraisal of the representation of Philetairos as the new founder of Pergamon between the Hellenistic and the Imperial period. The link between Philetairos and the early development of Pergamon as a polis is reassessed in the wake of the recent archaeological scholarship and with particular attention to the occurrences of the toponym Philetaireia, by which the areas of the citadel urbanised before Eumenes II were known. The existence of a cult of Philetairos as Ktistes is possible but unproven for the Attalid period; conversely, its traces are evident in the late 2nd and 1st cent. BC. Finally, by reassessing the sources regarding the charge of “prytanis and priest (of Philetairos)” between 133/2 BC and the advent of the Principatus, it is possible to identify a rupture in the organisation of Pergamon’s civic memory at the beginning of the Imperial period. This overview shows that the characterisation of Philetairos as city founder in Pergamon’s civic memory was probably first shaped by his successors to spread a message of legitimacy but reached its peak in the century between the end of the Attalid dynasty and Augustus. At this time, the city looked at its grand past as a source of identity and prestige, with which the new ruling class wished to connect. Under the Empire, the legacy of Philetairos lost a great deal of its appeal without, however, causing the complete disappearance of Pergamon’s dynastic past from the memory of the civic elites.
Journal Article
The historian Philip of Pergamon
This article studies the inscription IG IV2 1.687 (FGrH 95), the only evidence for the historian Philip of Pergamon. The subjects considered include the text itself, the appearance of the stone and the layout in imitation of papyrus, the date as evidenced by the lettering, the use of the Ionic dialect and the references to ‘suffering and continuous mutual slaughter’. Finally, it is proposed that Philip may be ‘the historian Philip’ mentioned in a dialogue of Plutarch.
Journal Article
The Career of Menogenes Son of Isidoros and Relations between Sardeis and the koinon of Asia under Augustus and Tiberius
The background to Sardeis’ defeat to Smyrna over the right to Asia’s second neokoros temple in 26 CE (Tac. Ann. 4.55–56) can be illuminated through the career of the prominent Sardian Menogenes son of Isidoros, as recorded in his honorific stele (I.Sardis 8). A re-dating of his first term as ekdikos of the koinon of Asia (from 5/4 to 6/5 BCE) reveals even more starkly the stele’s ideological significance as a monument reflecting Sardeis’ concern over its regional eminence under Augustus and Tiberius, as this was increasingly challenged by the existence of a provincial koinon based at Pergamon.
Journal Article
The Role of Ancient Greek Physicians in the Development of Tracheostomy: Pioneering Airway Interventions and Early Thoracic Surgery
Tracheostomy, a critical airway intervention, has a long and complex history that dates back to antiquity. While the earliest references to the procedure appear in Egyptian and Indian medical texts, its development within ancient Greek medicine remains a subject of historical debate. This study explores the evolution of tracheostomy in ancient Greece, analyzing its theoretical foundations, historical accounts, and surgical advancements. Despite Hippocratic opposition, which largely discouraged invasive airway procedures due to the risk of fatal complications, later physicians such as Asclepiades, Aretaeus, and Antyllus made significant contributions to refining airway management techniques. The anatomical studies of Galen further advanced the understanding of respiratory physiology, including early concepts of artificial ventilation. Additionally, this study examines archaeological evidence, such as a marble relief discovered in Abdera, which may depict an early attempt at tracheostomy, providing valuable insight into the practical application of airway interventions in antiquity. By comparing ancient Greek surgical techniques with modern tracheostomy practices, this research highlights the continuity of medical knowledge and innovation. It underlines the role of ancient Greek physicians in shaping the principles of thoracic surgery, offering a broader understanding of how early medical practices have influenced contemporary airway management. The findings contribute to the historical perspective on tracheostomy, emphasizing the timeless pursuit of life-saving surgical advancements and the evolving relationship between theoretical medical knowledge and practical surgical application.
Journal Article
CERAMICS, SURVEYS, AND CONNECTIVITY IN WESTERN ANATOLIA
This paper presents the results of a longterm survey conducted in the Bakırçay/Kaikos Valley and the vicinity of Pergamon, which provides a new primary dataset for the 2nd millennium BCE developments in this area. The archaeological evidence will be outlined in detail for the first time here, embedded in broader cultural and material developments of the Western Anatolian Middle and Late Bronze Ages. The discussion will not be limited to ceramic wares and shapes and the chronological assessment of the finds only, but their distribution within the valley and site hierarchies will be assessed as well. Finally, the significance of the Bakırçay Valley within the broader cultural landscapes of Western Anatolia will be reconsidered.
Journal Article
Middle and Late Byzantine sigillographic evidence from western Anatolia: eighth- to early twelfth-century lead seals from Bergama (ancient Pergamon)
This article presents 19 lead seals from the Museum of Bergama (ancient Pergamon), dating from the early eighth to the early twelfth century. We offer a descriptive catalogue of these Middle and Late Byzantine seals preserved in a western Turkish museum. The owners of these seals were primarily ecclesiastical, legal or military dignitaries who were probably active in Pergamon, in southwestern Mysia, Aeolis or Lydia. The catalogue is followed by an appendix on a Byzantine magical amulet.
Journal Article
Early Byzantine sigillographic evidence from western Anatolia: sixth- and seventh-century lead seals from Bergama (ancient Pergamon)
This article presents twelve lead seals from the Museum of Bergama (ancient Pergamon), dating from the late sixth to the early eighth century. We offer a descriptive catalogue of these early Byzantine seals preserved in a western Turkish museum. In the introduction, seals excavated in Pergamon as well as seals referring to Pergamon are briefly discussed. The owners of the twelve seals in the museum were primarily ecclesiastical or legal dignitaries who were probably active in Pergamon, in southwestern Mysia, in Aeolis or in Lydia.
Journal Article