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What are igneous rocks?
\"Bursting volcanoes, cooling magma, crystals, and granite: this title covers everything igneous rock related. Written for a lower-elementary-level audience, the science behind the rock cycle and the formation of igneous rocks is presented in clear and easy-to-understand language.\"--Provided by publisher.
Book
Investigation of the Petrographic, Mineralogical and Geochemical Composition of the Coal From the Current Muğla-Yatağan Coalfield Drilling Data
This study aims to report and evaluate the petrographic, mineralogical and geochemical composition of four samples taken from the B-22 borehole core obtained from the newly discovered coalfield located between Şahinler and Bozüyük in the southwest of Yatağan district of Muğla province.The results of the proximate analysis completed earlier from the samples were as follows; the average total moisture is 5.28%; the ash yield 35.38% (dry basis), volatile matter yield 39.23% (dry basis); fixed carbon yield 25.39% (dry basis); the total sulfur content 5.47% (dry basis); the net calorific value 16.08 MJ/kg and the gross calorific value is 16.89 MJ/kg. The ash value of sample number 4 is 71.50%; hence, it is not considered as coal. The sample is classified as a carbonaceous rock, therefore being not included from the averaged values.The result of maceral analysis and reflectance measurements (in Appendix II) on whole rock basis are as follows: the average telohuminite content is 14.67 vol.%, the average detrohuminite 50,67%, the average gelohuminite 11.34%, the average liptinite (mainly sporinite, alginite and cutinite) 5.67%, the average inertinite (mainly fusinite, funginite and micrinite) 3.67%, and the average mineral content is 14% (again, sample 4 is excluded from the average calculations). Huminite group macerals are common, while the inertinite and liptinite macerals are rare and the mineral matter content varies.Recently laser micro-Raman Spectroscopy is widely used to determine the structural properties of carbonaceous materials. Thus, a set of micro-Raman spectroscopic data has been acquired from huminite and inertinite macerals. The micro-Raman work was performed on one sample only. The micro-Raman data obtained were evaluated using three different Raman Spectroscopy software (IFORS (Python software), SpectraGryph and OriginPro) in order to compare the processed results. According to the results, the values of the D1 band of the fusinite macerals vary between 1345 and 1397 cm-1 with an average of 1375.17 cm-1. The D1 band values of ulminites range between 1356-1362 cm-1 with an average of 1359 cm-1. The values of the G band range between 1587-1609 cm-1 in fusinites and the average is 1598.75 cm-¹. The average D1 and G bands obtained are within the range of values of the coal spectrum obtained by Tuinstra and Koenig (1970), and Friedel and Carlson (1971). Data obtained from Micro-Raman Spectroscopy encourage further inquiry of the method as a complementary method in low-rank coals.
Dissertation
What are sedimentary rocks?
It all starts with erosion for sedimentary rock. Worn down bits of rock become pressed together under pressure into strata, or layers. The formation of rock such as sandstone, shale, limestone, and dolomite is explained.
Book
The rock cycle
\"Within the rock cycle, there are so many other processes! Weather, erosion, and the creation of metamorphic, igneous, and sedimentary rock are all part of the greater process scientists call the rock cycle. In this colorful and engaging volume, readers read about each process in accessible language and then review it in an easy-to-follow flowchart. Full of Earth science content that supports classroom learning, the main content guides readers through important subject areas including what rock is made of, how minerals are used, and metal mining. Full-color photographs correlate to and complement each chapter.\"--Amazon.
Book
Karwowskiite, Casub.9sub.7—A New Merrillite Group Mineral from Paralava of the Hatrurim Complex, Daba-Siwaqa, Jordan
Crystals of karwowskiite, Ca[sub.9]Mg(Fe[sup.2+] [sub.0.5]□[sub.0.5])(PO[sub.4])[sub.7], a new mineral of the merrillite group, were found on an amygdule wall in the central part of an anorthite–tridymite–diopside paralava of the Hatrurim Complex, Daba-Siwaqa, Jordan. The amygdule was filled with a sulfide melt, which after crystallization gave a differentiated nodule, consisting of troilite and pentlandite parts and containing tetrataenite and nickelphosphide inclusions. Karwowskiite crystals are colorless, although sometimes a greenish tint is observed. The mineral has a vitreous luster. The microhardness VHN[sub.25] is 365 (12), corresponding to 4 on the Mohs hardness scale. Cleavage is not observed, and fracture is conchoidal. The calculated density is 3.085 g/cm[sup.3]. Karwowskiite is uniaxial (−): ω = 1.638 (3), ε = 1.622 (3) (λ = 589 nm), and pleochroism is not observed. The composition of karwowskiite is described by the empirical formula: Ca[sub.9.00](□[sub.0.54]Fe[sup.2+] [sub.0.23]Mg[sub.0.12]Na[sub.0.04] Sr[sub.0.03] Ni[sub.0.03]K[sub.0.01]) [sub.Σ1.00]Mg[sub.1.00](PO[sub.4])[sub.7.02]. Karwowskiite is distinct from the known minerals of the merrillite subgroup with the general formula A[sub.9]XM[TO[sub.3](Ø)][sub.7], where A = Ca, Na, Sr, and Y; X = Na, Ca, and □; M = Mg, Fe[sup.2+], Fe[sup.3+], and Mn; T = P; and Ø = O, in that the X site in it is occupied by Fe[sup.2+] [sub.0.5]□[sub.0.5]. Karwowskiite is trigonal, space group R-3c with a = 10.3375 (2) Å, c = 37.1443 (9) Å, and V = 3437.60 (17) Å[sup.3]. Karwowskiite crystallizes at temperatures lower than 1100 °C in a thin layer of secondary melt forming on the walls of amygdules and gaseous channels in paralava as a result of contact with heated gases which are by-products of the combustion process.
Journal Article
Partitioning of Fe2O3 in peridotite partial melting experiments over a range of oxygen fugacities elucidates ferric iron systematics in mid-ocean ridge basalts and ferric iron content of the upper mantle
Basalts and peridotites from mid-ocean ridges record fO2 near the quartz-fayalite-magnetite buffer (QFM), but peridotite partial melting experiments have mostly been performed in graphite capsules (~ QFM-3), precluding evaluation of ferric iron’s behavior during basalt generation. We performed experiments at 1.5 GPa, 1350–1400 °C, and fO2 from about QFM-3 to QFM+3 to investigate the anhydrous partitioning behavior of Fe2O3 between silicate melts and coexisting peridotite mineral phases. We find spinel/melt partitioning of Fe2O3 (DFe2O3spl/melt) increases as spinel Fe2O3 concentrations increase, independent of increases in fO2, and decreases with temperature, which is consistent with new and previous experiments at 0.1 MPa. We find DFe2O3opx/melt = 0.63 ± 0.10 and DFe2O3cpx/melt = 0.78 ± 0.30. MORB Fe2O3 and Na2O concentrations are consistent with a modeled MORB source with Fe2O3 = 0.48 ± 0.03 wt% (Fe3+/ΣFe = 0.053 ± 0.003) at potential temperatures (TP) from 1320 to 1440 °C. The temperature-dependence of the DFe2O3spl/melt function alone allows ~ 40% of the variation in MORB compositions. If we allow DFe2O3opx/melt and DFe2O3opx/melt to also vary with temperature by tying them to spinel Fe2O3 through intermineral partitioning, then all the MORB data are within error of the model. Our model Fe2O3 concentration for the MORB source would require that the convecting mantle be more oxidized at a given depth than recorded by continental mantle xenoliths. Our result is supported by thermodynamic models of mantle with Fe3+/ΣFe = 0.03 that predict fO2 of ~ QFM-1 near the garnet-spinel transition, which is inconsistent with fO2 of MORB. Our results support previous suggestions that redox melting may occur between 200 and 250 km depth.
Journal Article
Diesel Spray Studies in Modern Diesel Engines
In this doctoral thesis, diesel injection and spray formation in modern diesel engines were studied. The goal of this thesis is to answer some fundamental questions and hypotheses about injection and spray formation in modern diesel engines. First, the fundamental spray characteristics of renewable diesel were studied under non-evaporative conditions. Second, these spray characteristics were studied under extremely high cylinder pressure. Third, the spray characteristics of conical nozzle orifice geometry were studied. Finally, the spray characteristics of biofuel blends were studied in an optical engine during late-post-injection, which is relevant to exhaust gas after-treatment.Studies showed that the spray tip penetrations with renewable diesel and petroleum diesel were similar under non-evaporative conditions. The spray angle was slightly wider, spray tip velocities were higher, and the inner delay of the injector was shorter with renewable diesel. The conclusion of the study was that there is no need to redesign the combustion chamber or readjust the injection parameters due to wall impact or spray collision.Very high in-cylinder pressure and density have a significant effect on spray penetration. Higher gas phase mixing was observed with higher in-cylinder density. No negative aspects were found for extremely high gas density.When the spray tip penetration was compared between different conical geometries and a cylindrical nozzle orifice geometry, a clear difference was not found under non-evaporative conditions. This result is inconsistent with earlier studies. The main reasons for this inconsistency may be the different approach and high injection pressure. The spray angle was smaller, and the mass flow rate higher, with conical nozzle orifice geometry. Standard hydraulic flow measurement with an injection pressure of 100 bar underestimates the flow rate of conical orifices due to lack of cavitation.Different hypotheses about higher spray tip penetration and cylinder wall-wetting during late post-injection were studied. A clear difference in the spray tip penetration was not observed when three different fuel blends were compared. The conditions that would be needed for droplets to evaporate before reaching the cylinder wall are not attained with very late injection. Hence, hypotheses that the amount of fuel ending up on the cylinder walls is higher with biofuels are unlikely. The main reason for oil dilution rate differences between fuel blends is probably related to the volatility of the fuel fraction, or because the control unit increases the volume of the post-injections due to the lower volumetric heat value of renewable diesel.
Dissertation