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Suppressing the trap-state density and the energy loss via ternary strategy was demonstrated. Favorable vertical phase distribution with donors (acceptors) accumulated (depleted) at the interface of active layer and charge extraction layer can be obtained by introducing appropriate amount of polymer acceptor N2200 into the systems of PBDB-T:IT-M and PBDB-TF:Y6. In addition, N2200 is gradiently distributed in the vertical direction in the ternary blend film. Various measurements were carried out to study the effects of N2200 on the binary systems. It was found that the optimized morphology especially in vertical direction can significantly decrease the trap state density of the binary blend films, which is beneficial for the charge transport and collection. All these features enable an obvious decrease in charge recombination in both PBDB-T:IT-M and PBDB-TF:Y6 based organic solar cells (OSCs), and power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) of 12.5% and 16.42% were obtained for the ternary OSCs, respectively. This work indicates that it is an effective method to suppress the trap state density and thus improve the device performance through ternary strategy.

We consider a nonclassical state generated by an atom-cavity field interaction in presence of a driven field. In the scheme, the two-level atom is moved through the cavity and driven by a classical field. The atom interacts dispersively with the cavity field, which results in a photon-number-dependent Stark shift. Assuming that the atom enters the cavity in the excited state | a ⟩ , the obtained output cavity field is taken into account. The state vector | ψ ( t ) ⟩ describes the entire atom-field system but in our work we deal with the statistical aspects of the cavity field only. The quantum state that corresponds to the output cavity field is obtained by tracing out the atom part from | ψ ( t ) ⟩ ⟨ ψ ( t ) | . Different quantum phase properties such as quantum phase distribution, angular Q phase function, phase dispersion are evaluated for the obtained radiation field. The second-order correlation function g 2 ( 0 ) , an indirect phase characteristic is also considered.

This study proposes a method of coordinating electric vehicle charging to reduce losses in a distribution system, using only knowledge of the phase that each charger is connected to. Reducing network losses cuts costs and can be achieved through demand response mechanisms. However, directly minimising losses requires accurate values of the line impedances, which can be difficult to obtain. Flattening load over time and balancing load across phases have both been proposed as alternate solutions which indirectly reduce losses. Here, the practical differences between load flattening and explicitly minimising losses are quantified using simulations of residential charging in European style, three‐phase distribution networks. Then, a new smart charging strategy, which incorporates phase balancing as a secondary objective to load flattening, is proposed. This requires only the knowledge of the phase that each load is on and achieves 30–70% of the potential reduction in losses.

In this paper, the second part of studying the set of all equilibrium states of a two-phase thermoelastic medium has been presented. An equilibrium state of a two-phase elastic medium is understood as an ordered pair: a displacement field and a spatial phase distribution, which provide the free energy functional with a global minimum. For thermoelastic media, the free energy densities are obtained by adding the terms associated with the thermal stresses of each phase and the terms associated with the energies of each phase in the unstressed state at zero stress-temperature tensors to the strain energy densities. The temperature dependence of the set of all equilibrium states of a two-phase thermoelastic medium has been found and studied under zero Dirichlet boundary conditions on the displacement field and certain restrictions on the elasticity tensors, the strain tensors providing each phase with the stress-free state at the initial temperature, the stress-temperature tensors, and terms in the definition of the free energy densities associated with the energies of each phase in the stress-free state at zero stress-temperature tensors.

In the continuous scaling-up process of the separating system, a mechanism exists that transforms the behavior of the flow field, resulting in deviations from the original model and conclusions. The paper examined the effects of the scale up of a fluidized bed by CFD. It was observed that increasing the diameter reduces the amplitude of axial density fluctuations. Similarly, increasing the static height increases the amplitude. Moreover, increasing the static bed height enhances the visibility of the cyclic flow structure of gas and solid phases. The flow structure in large bed diameters is disrupted. The impact of changing the bed diameter on bed density is more significant than the static height. As the bed diameter increases, the bubble disturbance decreases and the aggregation phase gradually disappears while the proportion of the emulsified phase keeps increasing. This study will guide and assist in the future application of separated fluidized beds in industry.

The air injection method serves as a liquefaction mitigation technique to improve the liquefaction resistance of the foundations by decreasing the degree of saturation. To investigate the desaturation effect of this technique in various soil strata of the foundation, thin plate model tests were conducted, considering the impacts of gradation and relative density, to visualize the air migration process and distribution. The findings reveal the following: (1) The air migration process, delineated by air injection parameters, comprises four distinct phases, with stages II and III notably influenced by the pore structure; (2) air migration is governed by the pore throat dimensions, particle arrangement, and connectivity within the pore structure, exhibiting two predominant patterns: channel flow, primarily driven by inertial forces, and chamber flow, predominantly influenced by viscous and capillary forces; (3) referring to the air injection port, the gas phase distribution within the sand samples is consistent in the horizontal direction but not in the vertical direction. The concentration area and uniformity of the gas phase distribution are controlled by the pore structure. These results suggest potential enhancements in the positioning of air injection ports within complex soil layers, as well as improvements in the construction process, both aimed at optimizing the desaturation effect.

This paper addresses the phase-balancing problem in three-phase power grids with the radial configuration from the perspective of master–slave optimization. The master stage corresponds to an improved version of the Chu and Beasley genetic algorithm, which is based on the multi-point mutation operator and the generation of solutions using a Gaussian normal distribution based on the exploration and exploitation schemes of the vortex search algorithm. The master stage is entrusted with determining the configuration of the phases by using an integer codification. In the slave stage, a power flow for imbalanced distribution grids based on the three-phase version of the successive approximation method was used to determine the costs of daily energy losses. The objective of the optimization model is to minimize the annual operative costs of the network by considering the daily active and reactive power curves. Numerical results from a modified version of the IEEE 37-node test feeder demonstrate that it is possible to reduce the annual operative costs of the network by approximately 20% by using optimal load balancing. In addition, numerical results demonstrated that the improved version of the CBGA is at least three times faster than the classical CBGA, this was obtained in the peak load case for a test feeder composed of 15 nodes; also, the improved version of the CBGA was nineteen times faster than the vortex search algorithm. Other comparisons with the sine–cosine algorithm and the black hole optimizer confirmed the efficiency of the proposed optimization method regarding running time and objective function values.

This article proposes an optimization methodology to address the joint placement as well as the capacity design of PV units and D-STATCOMs within unbalanced three-phase distribution systems. The proposed model adopts a mixed-integer nonlinear programming structure using complex-valued variables, with the objective of minimizing the total annual cost—including investment, maintenance, and energy purchases. A leader–followeroptimization framework is adopted, where the leader stage utilizes the Generalized Normal Distribution Optimization (GNDO) algorithm to generate candidate solutions, while the follower stage conducts power flow calculations through successive approximation to assess the objective value. The proposed approach is tested on 25- and 37-node feeders and benchmarked against three widely used metaheuristic algorithms: the Chu and Beasley Genetic Algorithm, Particle Swarm Optimization, and Vortex Search Algorithm. The results indicate that the proposed strategy consistently achieves highly cost-efficient outcomes. For the 25-node system, the cost is reduced from USD 2,715,619.98 to USD 2,221,831.66 (18.18%), and for the 37-node system, from USD 2,927,715.61 to USD 2,385,465.29 (18.52%). GNDO also surpassed the alternative algorithms in terms of solution precision, robustness, and statistical dispersion across 100 runs. All numerical simulations were executed using MATLAB R2024a. These findings confirm the scalability and reliability of the proposed method, positioning it as an effective tool for planning distributed energy integration in practical unbalanced networks.

In continuous casting production, droplet characteristics are important parameters for evaluating the nozzle atomization quality, and have a significant impact on the secondary cooling effect and the slab quality. In order to study the behavior of atomized droplets after reaching the slab surface and to optimize the spray cooling effect, the influence of droplet diameter and droplet velocity on the migration behavior of droplets in the secondary cooling zone was analyzed by FLUENT software. Results show that the droplets in the spray zone and on the slab surface are mainly concentrated in the center, thus, the liquid volume fraction in the center is higher than that of either side. As the droplet diameter increases, the region of high liquid volume fraction on the slab surface becomes wider, and the liquid phase distribution in the slab width direction becomes uneven. Although increasing the droplet velocity at the nozzle exit has little effect on droplet diffusion in the spray zone, the distribution becomes more uneven due to more liquid reaches the slab surface per unit time. A prediction formula of the maximum water flow rate on the slab surface for specific droplet characteristics was proposed based on dimensionless analysis and validated by simulated data. A nozzle spacing of 210 mm was recommended under the working conditions in this study, which ensures effective coverage of the spray water over the slab surface and enhances the distribution uniformity of water flow rate in the transverse direction.

Many problems arising at the development of a mathematical model of critical regimes of two-phase flows are connected with the necessary account for differently directed motion of particles at all levels of the channel simultaneously. These problems were solved by developing a discrete-stationary model of the process. Recurrent equations allowing us to determine solid phase distribution both in ordinary conditions and in optimal separation regimes were derived and solved.