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Our world is becoming increasingly urbanized with a growing human population concentrated around cities. The expansion of urban areas has important consequences for biodiversity, yet the abiotic drivers of biodiversity in urban ecosystems have not been well characterized for the most diverse group of animals on the planet, arthropods. Given their great diversity, comparatively small home ranges, and ability to disperse, arthropods make an excellent model for studying which factors can most accurately predict urban biodiversity. We assessed the effects of (i) topography (distance to natural areas and to ocean) (ii) abiotic factors (mean annual temperature and diurnal range), and (iii) anthropogenic drivers (land value and amount of impervious surface) on the occurrence of six arthropod groups represented in Malaise trap collections run by the BioSCAN project across the Greater Los Angeles Area. We found striking heterogeneity in responses to all factors both within and between taxonomic groups. Diurnal temperature range had a consistently negative effect on occupancy but this effect was only significant in Phoridae. Anthropogenic drivers had mixed though mostly insignificant effects, as some groups and species were most diverse in highly urbanized areas, while other groups showed suppressed diversity. Only Phoridae was significantly affected by land value, where most species were more likely to occur in areas with lower land value. Los Angeles can support high regional arthropod diversity, but spatial community composition is highly dependent on the taxonomic group.

Necrophagous Diptera are the most important group of insects used for the purposes of forensic entomology. While the most utilized fly family in this context is the family Calliphoridae, there are several other families that can be of great importance during real-case investigations. This article analyzes the necrophagous flies of all families recorded from 160 real cases in Switzerland between 1993 and 2007. A total of 56 species belonging to 16 families was identified with Calliphoridae being the most dominant family (90.63% of all cases), followed by Muscidae (26.25%), Sarcophagidae (19.38%), Phoridae (14.38%), and Fanniidae (12.50%). For specimens that were difficult to identify morphologically, a new PCR primer has been specifically designed for the amplification of a short, informative COI barcode in degraded museum samples of forensically important Diptera taxa. The richest family in terms of species was the family Muscidae with 16 species. Fannia fuscula (Fallen) and Fannia monilis (Haliday) were recorded from human cadavers for the first time. The study highlights the importance of different fly families in forensic investigation, enhancing our comprehension of their prevalence and dispersion in real cases in Central Europe. The results pave the way for additional exploration, especially regarding the involvement of less frequently observed species in forensic entomology.

Over the past several decades, there have been several strident exchanges regarding whether forensic entomologists estimate the postmortem interval (PMI), minimum PMI, or something else. During that time, there has been a proliferation of terminology reflecting this concern regarding “what we do.” This has been a frustrating conversation for some in the community because much of this debate appears to be centered on what assumptions are acknowledged directly and which are embedded within a list of assumptions (or ignored altogether) in the literature and in case reports. An additional component of the conversation centers on a concern that moving away from the use of certain terminology like PMI acknowledges limitations and problems that would make the application of entomology appear less useful in court—a problem for lawyers, but one that should not be problematic for scientists in the forensic entomology community, as uncertainty is part of science that should and can be presented effectively in the courtroom (e.g., population genetic concepts in forensics). Unfortunately, a consequence of the way this conversation is conducted is that even as all involved in the debate acknowledge the concerns of their colleagues, parties continue to talk past one another advocating their preferred terminology. Progress will not be made until the community recognizes that all of the terms under consideration take the form of null hypothesis statements and that thinking about “what we do” as a null hypothesis has useful legal and scientific ramifications that transcend arguments over the usage of preferred terminology.

The succession, development, and behavior of necrophagous insects on decomposing remains are used by forensic entomologists to estimate the minimum post-mortem interval (minPMI). Carcasses are often recovered from concealed environments, such as burials, wrapping, suitcases and waste bins, where they are protected from abiotic and biotic factors, including carrion fauna. The present study represents the first comprehensive research on concealed environments in Australia. Stillborn piglets (Sus scrofa domesticus L.) placed in hard-covered suitcases (N = 40, restricted access) and wheeled bins (N = 20, partially restricted access) were compared with controls (N = 5, exposed) placed on the soil surface, over a period of 164 days (Austral winter to spring). The analysis compared the decomposition process patterns and considered the insect assemblages colonizing the carcasses in each concealment type and the controls. Results show that 1) insects were attracted to the control carcasses within hours of placement in the field (Day 1, D1), followed by wheeled bin carcasses (D3) and suitcase carcasses (D4); 2) carcasses reached skeletonization on D65 (exposed), D108 (wheeled bin) and D136 (suitcase); 3) the assemblages of necrophagous insect species were different between the exposed and the concealed carcasses; 4) blowflies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) were the most prevalent insects colonizing the controls and wheeled bins, while coffin flies (Diptera: Phoridae) were the most prevalent in the suitcases, with some colonized by black soldier flies (Diptera: Stratyiomiidae). The results of this research contribute to the understanding of decomposition processes and insect activity in restricted access environments and help provide a more accurate estimation of the minPMI in forensic cases. •Carcasses are often recovered concealed in suitcases and wheeled bins.•Concealed carcasses display a delay in carrion insect colonization.•Different necrophagous insect species are observed in exposed vs. concealed carcasses.•Blowflies were prevalent in controls and wheeled bins; coffin flies dominated suitcases.

Determining the size of the German insect fauna requires better knowledge of several megadiverse families of Diptera and Hymenoptera that are taxonomically challenging. This study takes the first step in assessing these “dark taxa” families and provides species estimates for four challenging groups of Diptera (Cecidomyiidae, Chironomidae, Phoridae, and Sciaridae). These estimates are based on more than 48,000 DNA barcodes (COI) from Diptera collected by Malaise traps that were deployed in southern Germany. We assessed the fraction of German species belonging to 11 fly families with well-studied taxonomy in these samples. The resultant ratios were then used to estimate the species richness of the four “dark taxa” families (DT families hereafter). Our results suggest a surprisingly high proportion of undetected biodiversity in a supposedly well-investigated country: at least 1800–2200 species await discovery in Germany in these four families. As this estimate is based on collections from one region of Germany, the species count will likely increase with expanded geographic sampling.

Background Zoology’s dark matter comprises hyperdiverse, poorly known taxa that are numerically dominant but largely unstudied, even in temperate regions where charismatic taxa are well understood. Dark taxa are everywhere, but high diversity, abundance, and small size have historically stymied their study. We demonstrate how entomological dark matter can be elucidated using high-throughput DNA barcoding (“megabarcoding”). We reveal the high abundance and diversity of scuttle flies (Diptera: Phoridae) in Sweden using 31,800 specimens from 37 sites across four seasonal periods. We investigate the number of scuttle fly species in Sweden and the environmental factors driving community changes across time and space. Results Swedish scuttle fly diversity is much higher than previously known, with 549 putative species detected, compared to 374 previously recorded species. Hierarchical Modelling of Species Communities reveals that scuttle fly communities are highly structured by latitude and strongly driven by climatic factors. Large dissimilarities between sites and seasons are driven by turnover rather than nestedness. Climate change is predicted to significantly affect the 47% of species that show significant responses to mean annual temperature. Results were robust regardless of whether haplotype diversity or species-proxies were used as response variables. Additionally, species-level models of common taxa adequately predict overall species richness. Conclusions Understanding the bulk of the diversity around us is imperative during an era of biodiversity change. We show that dark insect taxa can be efficiently characterised and surveyed with megabarcoding. Undersampling of rare taxa and choice of operational taxonomic units do not alter the main ecological inferences, making it an opportune time to tackle zoology’s dark matter.

The American cockroach, Periplaneta americana (Linnaeus, 1758) (Blattodea: Blattidae), is one of the most common pests that thrive in diverse environments and carries various pathogens, causing critical threats to public health and the ecosystem. We thus report in this study the first observation of decapitated American cockroaches as a result of infestation with scuttle fly parasitoids. Interestingly, behavioral alterations in the form of zombification-like behavior could be observed in cockroaches reared in the laboratory before being decapitated, implying that the insect targets cockroach heads. To identify this parasitoid, cockroaches’ corpora were isolated in jars, and apodous larvae were observed. Larvae developed into small coarctate pupae, and adults emerged. The scuttle flies were collected and exhibited tiny black, brown, to yellowish bodies. The fly was initially identified based on its morphological properties as a member of the order Diptera, family Phoridae. To provide further insights into the morphological attributes of the phorid species, the fly was examined using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) and then identified as Megaselia scalaris accordingly. SEM analysis revealed the distinctive structure of M. scalaris concerning the head, mouth parts, and legs. Specifically, the mouth parts include the labrum, labellum, rostrum, and maxillary palps. Although further investigations are still required to understand the complicated relationships between M. scalaris and American cockroaches, our findings provide a prominent step in the control of American cockroaches using M. scalaris as an efficient biological control agent.

Scuttle flies (Diptera: Phoridae) are mega-diverse and often synanthropic insects that play superb roles in various ecosystems. Identification of this group of insects is challenging due to their small size, morphological identification difficulties, niche diversity, and lack of taxonomic keys. To pave the way, an in-depth investigation was directed toward the scuttle flies in Iran using morphological and molecular data. A dichotomous key was also developed to identify the genus and species of the phorids reported in the country. The faunistic findings revealed the presence of about 22,000 (13,903 male and 8,097 female) phorid materials organized into 11 genera. Megaselia species (n = 13768), made up about 99% of the specimens studied. Moreover, 71 morphologically defined species belonging to nine genera were molecularly characterized using COI , 28S rRNA , and Arginine kinase datasets. Excluding four Megaselia Rondani, 1856 species, our results specified that morphologically delimited species were in agreement with the molecular analyses inferred from the COI / 28S rRNA and COI / Arginine kinase sequences with genetic distances and phylogenetic trees. According to the results of the present study and previously published data, the Phoridae recorded for Iran are a total of 97 species that are ordered in 13 genera and three subfamilies, including Chonocephalinae, Metopininae and Phorinae. By comparing the known world phorid genera, a new monotypic genus of scuttle flies, Mahabadphora aesthesphora gen. nov., sp. nov., was identified based on its morphological and molecular characteristics and included in an updated key. Our results could comprehensively determine the taxonomic status of scuttle flies in Iran, scrutinize their phylogenetic structures and facilitate their identification.

Background The wing veins of known fossil and living phorids are reduced, making them difficult to homologise. Consequently, different interpretations have led to much confusion over the years. However, veins are crucial for phylogenetic and taxonomy studies, especially for fossils. We addressed these challenges by studying Cretaceous specimens, which exhibit fewer reductions in wing veins compared to modern fauna, along with post-Cretaceous specimens that display recent wing patterns. Furthermore, we examined related families such as Ironomyiidae, Platypezidae, Opetiidae, and Lonchopteridae to show wing similarities to the Phoridae. Results We propose two wing models that include the majority of veins found in each taxon. The early model (Phoridae sensu lato , including Sciadocerinae + “†Prioriphorinae”) consists of most Cretaceous species, except † Metopina goeleti from New Jersey amber, which displays a recent pattern. The recent model (Phoridae sensu stricto , i.e. Euphorida) is present in the majority of recent phorids. Based on this new interpretation, we re-evaluate three holotypes of Phoridae: † Euliphora grimaldii , † Prioriphora schroederhohenwarthi , and † Ulrichophora lobata . Additionally, we described a Phoridae specimen belonging to † Prioriphora in the Fouras-Bois Vert amber (France) and a new genus within the Ironomyiidae family in the San Just amber (Spain). Conclusion The newly proposed wing models facilitate rapid identification of Phoridae wing veins based on their degree of reduction. The two newly described specimens are the first records of these taxa in their respective localities.

Stridulatory sound-making organs evolved in a group of flies—the family Phoridae—by modifications of the microstructure of foreleg segments present in the shared ancestor of the clade (Phoridae + Opetiidae). The opetiids are the only group amongst the lower Cyclorrhapha in which plausible homologous structures could be found, though in a less derived condition. On the forefemur of Opetia there are numerous elongate, flattened microtrichia that in basal phorids are organized into a curved linear group (the scraper) which are scraped against a curved, ridged carina on the forecoxa (the file). The file was possibly derived from an extremely unusual set of three setae that have transverse sculpturing and sockets that limit lateral motion, and which are distributed across the opetiid forecoxa. In some phorid lineages, these setae seem to be fused into the forecoxa forming the linear ridged surface against which the scraper on the forefemur could be moved. The relationship between opetiids and phorids dates back to the Cretaceous, and this pattern of file and scraper can be clearly seen in some 100 mya Myanmar amber phorid fly fossils. These structures shared between opetiids and phorids suggest that these two families may be sister groups amongst the Platypezoidea. Different modifications of the forelegs of other higher flies may have similar roles.