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The Socioeconomic Plant Conservation Strategy for the Sultanate of Oman aims to provide a blueprint for the conservation of the genetic diversity of our plant genetic resources. It emphasizes in particular crop landraces, crop wild relatives, medicinal plants and wild harvested species that are of socioeconomic importance at national and regional level.

We present the first inventory and status assessment of the alien flora of Oman, mainly based on field data collected from 1998 to 2021. The study provides (i) a comprehensive account of alien vascular plant species occurring in the wild in Oman, with information on their taxonomic composition. For each species information is given on (ii) invasion status (casual, naturalized or invasive), biogeography, habitat and life-form characteristics, and pathways of introduction. Further, we (iii) explain the differences in the alien species composition in different parts of the country, and (iv) analyse the drivers of plant invasions in Oman. Out of the 111 alien species reported (7.7% of the total Oman vascular flora), 34 species are casuals and 77 naturalized; of the latter seven are considered invasive. The moderate number of alien plant species is likely a result of the country’s arid climate, with extremely high summer temperatures and low annual precipitation in most of its area, and the relatively long isolation of the country. The families richest in alien plant species are Fabaceae (17 species), Asteraceae (14 species) and Poaceae (12 species). More alien plants were found in northern Oman (82 species) than in southern Oman (60 species), and very few species are recorded from the central desert (7 species). The main habitats colonized were man-made habitats, either ruderal or agricultural. Most species alien to Oman are native to South America (49 species) or North America (43 species). This inventory provides a knowledge base for developing a national management strategy for alien vascular plants in Oman.

In order to evaluate the diversity, endemism, distribution and conservation of the genus Euphorbia in SW Asian countries, we generated an updated and annotated checklist of 249 taxa belonging to the current accepted four Euphorbia subgenera, 30 sections and five subsections, based on floristic compilations followed by extensive verification of nearly 24,000 herbarium vouchers from the region. We also provide updated distribution maps for 247 of the 249 taxa treated. The predominant group is Euphorbia subg. Esula , with 19 sections and 184 taxa (176 species), followed by subg. Chamaesyce (six sections, 32 species), subg. Euphorbia (two sections, 21 species) and subg. Athymalus (three sections, 12 species). Turkey, Iran and Syria are the most diverse countries, with 102, 92 and 50 species, respectively. The richest concentration of Euphorbia species in SW Asia are the eastern part of the Mediterranean region in Lebanon with 27–34 taxa; Alborz, Zagros (Iran), Lesser Caucasus, and Anti-Taurus (S Turkey) with 21–27 taxa each are the second richest areas. The highest number of endemics occurs in Iran (21 taxa), followed by Turkey (12 taxa) and Yemen (7 taxa). All 134 endemic and subendemic taxa were evaluated by the IUCN Red List categories and criteria. Among the known Euphorbia species in the region, 10 of them (4.4%) are adventive. Life-form spectra show that the majority of species (80.7%) are hemicryptophytes, therophytes and chamaephytes. Twelve new records are reported here for Iran, Afghanistan, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar and Turkey, six synonyms and three sectional transfers are suggested.

Conservation of elusive species affected by habitat degradation, population fragmentation and poaching is challenging. The remaining wild populations of a desert-adapted ungulate, Nubian ibex ( Capra nubiana ), within Oman are small and fragmented. The appropriateness of captive insurance populations for reinforcing existing, or establishing new, wild populations remains uncertain for Oman due to ambiguity regarding their genetic provenance. For effective management of this threatened species, it is essential to assess the genetic relationships between the wild and captive populations, and to investigate hybridisation with domestic goats ( Capra hircus ). We identified 5,775 high-quality SNPs using double digest restriction-site associated DNA (ddRAD), to assess genetic structure, gene flow and divergence between Oman’s wild populations of Nubian ibex and in captivity, which are likely of North African provenance. We detected hybridisation with goats in captivity and recommend that genetic assessments of captive individuals are routinely used to evaluate their suitability for conservation programs. Building on previous mitochondrial evidence, substantial nuclear divergence (F ST = 0.540) was found between wild Oman and captive populations, providing further evidence that Nubian ibex may be composed of multiple species and urgently needs a taxonomic review. Additionally, an appropriate insurance population should be established for Oman’s threatened wild population. The data provided here will be invaluable for developing marker systems to assess wild populations using low-quality DNA from non-invasive sampling. Consequently, it will support further research into Nubian ibex throughout their range and highlights the need to integrate genetic information for effective conservation management of Nubian ibex.

The acrothoracican genus Berndtia Utinomi, 1950 includes small barnacles known to bore into the calcareous skeleton of living scleractinian corals of the genera Psammocora Dana, 1846 and Leptastrea Milne Edwards & Haime, 1849. The six known species of Berndtia are restricted to the tropical Western Pacific. We provide the first record of Berndtia from the hydrocoral Millepora exaesa Forsskål, 1775 from the central Red Sea, Saudi Arabia, and the scleractinian coral Coscinaraea cf. monile (Forsskål, 1775) from the Arabian Sea, Oman. These findings extend the known range and host use of the genus and raise questions about Berndtia ’s host specificity. A molecular analysis of Saudi Arabian and Omani specimens suggests that they belong to two new lineages that may represent new species of Berndtia , each associated with multiple hosts. Further sampling around the Arabian Peninsula and the Western Indian Ocean and exploration of additional potential hosts would provide new insights into the species diversity of the genus.

The Arabian Peninsula, with its rugged mountains, wadis, alluvial plains, sand dune deserts, and diverse coastlines, spans over 3 million km2. The Peninsula is situated at the crossroads of Africa and Asia and is a meeting point for diverse biogeographic realms, including the Palearctic, Afrotropical, and Indomalayan regions. This convergence of biogeographic zones has resulted in a remarkably diverse flora and fauna, which is adapted to the harsh and varied climates found throughout the Peninsula. Each of the countries of the Arabian Peninsula are biologically diverse and unique in their own right, but Yemen, Saudi Arabia, and Oman are the most diverse in terms of their landforms and biological diversity. The mountainous regions support a cooler and more moderate climate compared to the surrounding lowlands, thus forming unique ecosystems that function as refugia for plant and animal species, and have a high endemism of plant species. The desert ecosystems support a variety of lifeforms that are specially adapted to an extreme arid climate. Due to its long history of human habitation and subsistence agriculture, particularly in the mountainous areas, the Arabian Peninsula possesses unique crop varieties adapted to extreme arid climates, making them important genetic resources for the future in the face of climate change. The Arabian Peninsula, though rich and diverse in its biological diversity, has been greatly affected by human activities, especially in the last 50 years, including urbanization, habitat destruction, overgrazing, and climate change, which pose significant threats to the biodiversity of the region. This review presents the biogeography and background of conservation efforts made in the countries in the Arabian Peninsula and gives the progress made in botanical research and conservation practices throughout the Peninsula.

The Hajar Mountains of south-eastern Arabia form an isolated massif surrounded by the sea to the east and by a large desert to the west. As a result of their old geological origin, geographical isolation, complex topography and local climate, these mountains provide an important refuge for endemic and relict species of plants and animals. With 19 species restricted to the Hajar Mountains, reptiles are the vertebrate group with the highest level of endemicity, becoming an excellent model for understanding the patterns and processes that generate and shape diversity in this arid mountain range. The geckos of the Ptyodactylus hasselquistii species complex are the largest geckos in Arabia and are found widely distributed across the Arabian Mountains, constituting a very important component of the reptile mountain fauna. Preliminary analyses suggested that their diversity in the Hajar Mountains may be higher than expected and that their systematics should be revised. In order to tackle these questions, we inferred a nearly complete calibrated phylogeny of the genus Ptyodactylus to identify the origin of the Hajar Mountains lineages using information from two mitochondrial and four nuclear genes. Genetic variability within the Hajar Mountains was further investigated using 68 specimens of Ptyodactylus from 46 localities distributed across the entire mountain range and sequenced for the same genes as above. The molecular phylogenies and morphological analyses as well as niche comparisons indicate the presence of two very old sister cryptic species living in allopatry: one restricted to the extreme northern Hajar Mountains and described as a new species herein; the other distributed across the rest of the Hajar Mountains that can be confidently assigned to the species P. orlovi. Similar to recent findings in the geckos of the genus Asaccus, the results of the present study uncover more hidden diversity in the northern Hajar Mountains and stress once again the importance of this unique mountain range as a hot spot of biodiversity and a priority focal point for reptile conservation in Arabia.

Madagascar does not have native wild felid species; however, distinct populations of free-ranging “forest cats” of unknown species are known throughout the island, including at Ankarafantsika National Park, Bezà Mahafaly Special Reserve, Makira Natural Park and the Masoala peninsula. Malagasy “forest cats” are commonly considered invasive lemur predators and competitors with endemic carnivores as well as a nuisance exotic species that kill poultry. These cats may be descendants of African wildcats, European wildcats and/or domestic cats; however, no research on their genetic origin has been published. To determine their taxonomic status, genetic data from short tandem repeat markers was assessed for three wild-caught “forest cats” from the Bezà Mahafaly Special Reserve (BMSR) and 27 “forest cats” from Ankarafantsika National Park. Bayesian analyses comparing the Malagasy “forest cats” to approximately 1900 domestic and wildcat sub-species suggest the Malagasy cats are descendents of domestic cats from the Arabian Sea region, including the islands of Lamu and Pate, Dubai, Kuwait and Oman. Additional genetic influences may descend from India and Pakistan. Combined with cultural and historical information, these data suggest that these felid populations are likely descendents from cats that immigrated to the island on trade ships, particularly along early Arab trade routes.

Background Mazri palm ( Nannorrhops ritchiana (Griff) Aitch.) is a member of the family Arecaceae, native to Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan, Oman, and Saudi Arabia. In Pakistan, it is used since long time for various purposes. This species plays a significant cultural and economic role in the daily lives of many rural areas in Pakistan and adjacent countries. However, the handcrafted products made up of this palm are often mainly known by specific local communities rather than by a broader range of people. Methods Eighty-six structured and semi-structured interviews were conducted from Mazri growing areas, villages, and markets of urban centers during the fieldwork that was conducted in diverse regions of Pakistan. Interviewees included 27 Mazri farmers, 17 locals retaining Traditional Knowledge in handcrafting Mazri palm (12 were men and 5 were women), 23 handicrafts experts (21 were men and 2 were women), and 19 sellers. The age of the informants ranged from 14 to 83 years. Study participants shared detailed information about various traditional utilizations of the Mazri palm. Results Mature leaves of Mazri palm are used to produce mats, baskets, hand fans, hats, cages, hot pots, salt pots, brooms, etc. in the sudy area. Hot pots, salt pots, mats, baskets, and ropes represent highly used items. The mats are used for various purposes like drying grains, performing prayers, sitting, and sleeping. As a whole, 39 different kinds of handcrafted products from the leaves were found. Our findings revealed also that other parts of the plant, ie. petioles, fruits, and bark, have been used, although more rarely, by the locals. The palm uses differ accordingly to the different cultural areas of Pakisitan, thus demonstrating that local cultural heritage significantly informs Traditional Knowledge and practices related to the use of Mazri palm. The findings suggest also that this plant represents a crucial resource for the livelihood of the local communities in dry areas of the western borders of Pakistan, starting right from the coastal areas of Baluchistan up to District Bajaur in the North, where other farming activities there are difficult due to drought conditions. Conclusions Traditional Knowledge about the sustainable utilization of Mazri palm is eroded in Pakistan among the younger generations due to rapid globalization and industrialization processes and appropriate strategies for revitalizing this heritage in a sustainable way should be urgently fostered.

Societal Impact Statement The oasis of al‐‘Ulā is subject to a vast development operation by the central government of the Saudi monarchy. Agriculture is not strictly speaking the first objective of this initiative, the emphasis being on tourism and thus on the vast historical heritage and landscape qualities of the region. Nevertheless, agriculture and, in particular, phoeniculture remain the main resource for the inhabitants. Characterizing the local date palm agrobiodiversity is key to the sustainable development of oases. In al‐‘Ulā, documenting indigenous knowledge about the locally predominant barnī variety and characterizing its genetic integrity and mode of propagation represents the essential leverage needed by farm development project planners to develop local production. Summary Understanding how farmers name and categorize their crops in relation to the way they are propagated is critical for a proper assessment of agrobiodiversity. Yet, indigenous knowledge is often overlooked in genetic studies, which may result in an underestimation of crop diversity, thereby preventing its conservation and mobilization for developing sustainable agroecosystems. Here, we focus on the barnī date palm variety, a local elite variety of al‐‘Ulā oasis, Saudi Arabia. We conducted an ethnobotanical survey on local phoeniculture practices and generated whole‐genome data to determine whether or not barnī palms are exclusively clonally (vegetatively) propagated. Further, we contrasted the genomes of barnī and two other palms from al‐‘Ulā with 112 Phoenix spp. to provide an initial insight into date palm diversity in this oasis. The survey reveals that the dates of the barnī palm bear distinct names, depending on their quality. Results show that barnī is a true‐to‐type cultivar, indicating clonal propagation by offshoots with name maintenance, even between distinct cultivating situations in al‐‘Ulā and a nearby oasis. Nonetheless, it is distinct from the prominent barnī cultivated in Oman. Its ancestry is comparable to other West Asian date palms, but another palm from this oasis shows influence from North Africa. What lies behind the cultivar name barnī in al‐‘Ulā and further afield in the Arabian Peninsula has been deciphered through the key disciplinary combination of social anthropology and genetics. Future studies will provide additional insights into the original genetic make‐up of this millennia‐old oasis. L'oasis d’al‐‘Ulā fait l'objet d'une vaste opération de développement par le gouvernement central de la monarchie saoudienne. L'agriculture n'est pas à proprement parler le premier objectif de cette initiative, l'accent étant mis sur le tourisme et donc sur le vaste patrimoine historique et les qualités paysagères de la région. Néanmoins, l'agriculture et en particulier la phœniciculture restent la principale ressource des habitants. La caractérisation de l'agrobiodiversité locale des palmiers dattiers est essentielle pour le développement durable des oasis. À al‐‘Ulā, la documentation des connaissances autochtones sur la variété locale barnī, prédominante, et la caractérisation de son identité génétique et de son mode de propagation représentent le levier nécessaire aux planificateurs de projets de développement agricole pour promouvoir la production locale. The oasis of al‐‘Ulā is subject to a vast development operation by the central government of the Saudi monarchy. Agriculture is not strictly speaking the first objective of this initiative, the emphasis being on tourism and thus on the vast historical heritage and landscape qualities of the region. Nevertheless, agriculture and in particular phoeniculture remain the main resource for the inhabitants. Characterizing the local date palm agrobiodiversity is key to the sustainable development of oases. In al‐‘Ulā, documenting indigenous knowledge about the locally predominant barnī variety and characterizing its genetic integrity and mode of propagation represents the essential leverage needed by farm development project planners to develop local production.