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Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) is a serious disease of goats, occasionally sheep and wild ruminants, caused by Mycoplasma capricolum subspecies capripneumoniae (Mccp). The disease is characterized by severe serofibrinous pleuropneumonia, very high morbidity (∼100%), and mortality (80-100%). CCPP affects goats in more than 40 countries of the world thereby posing a serious threat to goat farming around the globe. The characteristic clinical signs of CCPP are severe respiratory distress associated with sero-mucoid nasal discharge, coughing, dyspnea, pyrexia, pleurodynia, and general malaise. In later stages, severe lobar fibrinous pleuropneumonia, profuse fluid accumulation in pleural cavity, severe congestion of lungs and adhesion formation is observed. Mycoplasmal antigen interactions with host immune system and its role in CCPP pathogenesis are not clearly understood. CCPP is not a zoonotic disease. Diagnosis has overcome cumbersome and lengthy conventional tests involving culture, isolation, and identification by advanced serological (LAT, cELISA) or gene-based amplification of DNA (PCR, RFLP, and hybridization) and sequencing. The latex agglutination test (LAT) is rapid, simple, and better test for field and real-time diagnosis applicable to whole blood or serum and is more sensitive than the CFT and easier than the cELISA. Moreover, the studies on antibiotic sensitivity and exploration of novel antibiotics (fluoroquinolones, macrolides) can help in better therapeutic management besides preventing menace of antibiotic resistance. Re-visiting conventional prophylactic measures focussing on developing novel strain-based or recombinant vaccines using specific antigens (capsular or cellular) should be the most important strategy for controlling the disease worldwide.

Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) is a severe respiratory disease of cattle, caused by Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides , and is included in the list of notifiable diseases of the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH). CBPP was successfully eradicated from the USA, Australia, Europe, and parts of southern Africa, primarily through the application of drastic stamping-out policies. However, the disease remains endemic in sub-Saharan Africa, where it continues to spread despite considerable control efforts, causing significant losses and posing a serious risk of antimicrobial resistance emergence. Recognised as a major cattle disease, CBPP is included in the DISCONTOOLS database, which aims “to identify the gaps in knowledge to speed up the development of new disease control tools and to reduce the burden of animal diseases”. This work presents the outcome of a comprehensive analysis by a group of experts, who reviewed existing knowledge on CBPP aetiology, host–pathogen interactions, epidemiology, impact, and control. Key knowledge and technical gaps were identified, along with critical needs to support improved disease control and eventual eradication. These include a better understanding of the disease’s distribution, incidence and impact; the mechanisms of transmission and persistence at the population level; the molecular basis of pathogenicity and protective immune responses; the development of affordable and reliable diagnostic tools, including pen-side tests; and the design of safer, more effective, and thermostable vaccines, including DIVA and multi-valent options. In addition, cost-effective intervention strategies combining multiple control measures, such as vaccination and the rational, regulated use of antibiotics, must be developed and validated, alongside surveillance for antimicrobial resistance in the field. Social, political, and financial factors contributing to the persistence and spread of the disease must also be addressed. Importantly, based on this analysis, a set of cost-effective actions and practical recommendations has been proposed to mitigate the most critical gaps. With adequate financial, scientific, and political commitment, the eradication of CBPP remains an achievable goal.

Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae (APP) is a bacterium frequently associated with porcine pleuropneumonia. The acute form of the disease is highly contagious and often fatal, resulting in significant economic losses for pig farmers. Serotype diversity and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) of APP strains circulating in north Italian farms from 2015 to 2022 were evaluated retrospectively to investigate APP epidemiology in the area. A total of 572 strains isolated from outbreaks occurring in 337 different swine farms were analysed. The majority of isolates belonged to serotypes 9/11 (39.2%) and 2 (28.1%) and serotype diversity increased during the study period, up to nine different serotypes isolated in 2022. The most common resistances were against tetracycline (53% of isolates) and ampicillin (33%), followed by enrofloxacin, florfenicol and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (23% each). Multidrug resistance (MDR) was common, with a third of isolates showing resistance to more than three antimicrobial classes. Resistance to the different classes and MDR varied significantly depending on the serotype. In particular, the widespread serotype 9/11 was strongly associated with florfenicol and enrofloxacin resistance and showed the highest proportion of MDR isolates. Serotype 5, although less common, showed instead a concerning proportion of trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole resistance. Our results highlight how the typing of circulating serotypes and the analysis of their antimicrobial susceptibility profile are crucial to effectively manage APP infection and improve antimicrobial stewardship.

This research assesses the impact of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) vaccination, treatment, and combined vaccination and treatment at the herd and population level in heterogeneous, stochastic, state‐transition models of CBPP transmission. Results from published trials with oxytetracycline or third‐generation macrolides (tulathromycin and gamithromycin) were used to inform parameters for antibiotic treatment. Societies have evolved and the levels of movement control responsible for the previous success of vaccination programs are no longer possible. Current vaccines, when applied in the absence of movement control, did not result in eradication. For hypothetical vaccines with 85%–95% efficacy and 3 years duration of immunity, more than 3 years of biannual vaccination would be required to reduce herd prevalence to near eradication levels. The results of treatment scenarios indicated that small‐scale, focused community‐based programs working through trained community members to systematically detect and treat suspect cases with oxytetracyclines or third‐generation macrolides can eliminate CBPP from defined endemic populations within a period of 6 months. Oxytetracylcines are effective, inexpensive, and widely available. The rapid clinical response to the third‐generation macrolides is an additional, direct incentive of interest to livestock owners and has the potential to entirely change the economics of CBPP control programs. Development and validation of effective, practical treatment protocols have the potential to reduce total antibiotic use over the current situation of widespread, haphazard use of antibiotics and enhance antibiotic stewardship. Combined programs covering regions that promote treatment of clinical cases and vaccination of the contact population at risk are of interest. Large scale treatment and vaccination approaches have the potential to eliminate infection in time frames of 2–3 years. In the future, pilot control programs based on public–private‐community partnerships should be implemented at the community level that addresses the technical strategy, the modern institutional and socioeconomic challenges, and new opportunities for control.

We investigated the interactions of unopsonized and opsonized Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides ( Mmm ) with bovine macrophages in vitro . Mmm survived and proliferated extracellularly on bovine macrophage cell layers in the absence of Mmm -specific antisera. Bovine complement used at non-bactericidal concentrations did neither have opsonizing effect nor promoted intracellular survival, whereas Mmm -specific antisera substantially increased phagocytosis and Mmm killing. A phagocytosis-independent uptake of Mmm by macrophages occurred at a high multiplicity of infection, also found to induce the production of TNF, and both responses were unaffected by non-bactericidal doses of bovine complement. Bovine complement used at higher doses killed Mmm in cell-free cultures and completely abrogated TNF responses by macrophages. These results provide a framework to identify Mmm antigens involved in interactions with macrophages and targeted by potentially protective antibodies and point towards a pivotal role of complement in the control of inflammatory responses in contagious bovine pleuropneumonia.

BACKGROUND: Few serological tests are available for detecting antibodies against Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae, the causal agent of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP). The complement fixation test, the test prescribed for international trade purposes, uses a crude antigen that cross-reacts with all the other mycoplasma species of the “mycoides cluster” frequently infecting goat herds. The lack of a more specific test has been a real obstacle to the evaluation of the prevalence and economic impact of CCPP worldwide. A new competitive ELISA kit for CCPP, based on a previous blocking ELISA, was formatted at CIRAD and used to evaluate the prevalence of CCPP in some regions of Kenya, Ethiopia, Mauritius, Tajikistan and Pakistan in an international collaborative study. RESULTS: The strict specificity of the test was confirmed in CCPP-free goat herds exposed to other mycoplasma species of the “mycoides cluster”. Prevalence studies were performed across the enzootic range of the disease in Africa and Asia. Seroprevalence was estimated at 14.6% in the Afar region of Ethiopia, whereas all the herds presented for CCPP vaccination in Kenya tested positive (individual seroprevalence varied from 6 to 90% within each herd). In Mauritius, where CCPP emerged in 2009, nine of 62 herds tested positive. In Central Asia, where the disease was confirmed only recently, no positive animals were detected in the Wakhan District of Afghanistan or across the border in neighboring areas of Tajikistan, whereas seroprevalence varied between 2.7% and 44.2% in the other districts investigated and in northern Pakistan. The test was also used to monitor seroconversion in vaccinated animals. CONCLUSIONS: This newly formatted CCPP cELISA kit has retained the high specificity of the original kit. It can therefore be used to evaluate the prevalence of CCPP in countries or regions without vaccination programs. It could also be used to monitor the efficacy of vaccination campaigns as high-quality vaccines induce high rates of seroconversion.

Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae is the causative agent of porcine pleuropneumonia, a challenging respiratory disease for the global swine industry. Variations in the serotypes associated with clinical disease have been observed in different regions worldwide. This study aimed to provide an updated epidemiological assessment of A. pleuropneumoniae serotypes in Spain, incorporating bacterial characterization through serotyping and toxinotyping. Serotypes 9/11, 2, 4, 5, 17, and 13 were frequently identified in diseased animals. Furthermore, qPCR of lung samples from an outbreak, even when samples were pooled, emerged as a robust diagnostic tool, enabling the rapid detection of A. pleuropneumoniae and their serotypes without the need for microbiological isolation. This technology also facilitates serotype monitoring of apparently healthy herds through the testing of oral fluids. The study revealed the frequent simultaneous presence of diverse serotypes within a farm. Serotypes 1, 7, 10, 12, 18, and 19 were frequently found in subclinically infected animals but were rarely detected in acute pleuropneumonia outbreaks in the current study. These results provide valuable information for interpreting the potential virulence of the different serotypes in Spain. However, other predisposing factors and the immune status of the herds such as type of vaccines used when appropriate, should be carefully considered before drawing definitive conclusions. Nevertheless, the study offers valuable insights that underscore the necessity for detailed regional data to contribute toward a comprehensive understanding of the disease dynamics and toward formulating effective control measures for porcine pleuropneumonia.

Background Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae is a prevalent respiratory pathogen causing substantial economic losses in swine production worldwide. The bacterium's ability to rapidly develop antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses a significant challenge to effective treatment and control. In Poland, limited data on A. pleuropneumoniae serotype distribution and AMR patterns hinder evidence-based treatment strategies. This study examined the serotype diversity and AMR patterns of A. pleuropneumoniae isolates from porcine pleuropneumonia outbreaks in northeastern Poland between 2019 and 2024, providing crucial information for regional veterinary practices and antimicrobial stewardship efforts. Results Analysis of 119 isolates from 67 farms demonstrated the predominance of serotype 2 (65.5%), followed by serogroups 3, 6, 8 (18.5%) and 1, 9, 11 (15.1%). This distribution differs from recent trends in other European countries, suggesting regional epidemiological variations. High resistance rates were observed for tylosin (55.5%), gentamicin (36.1%), doxycycline (32.8%), and sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim (26.1%). Multidrug resistance fluctuated between 14.3% and 21.9% over the study period, with no clear linear trend. From 2022 onwards, strains exhibiting resistance to seven or more antimicrobials, including cephalosporins, emerged, marking a significant shift in resistance profiles. Temporal analysis revealed diverse resistance patterns, with significant increases in some antimicrobials (e.g., sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim, p  = 0.001) and stability in others (e.g., tetracycline, p  = 0.890). Notably, several antimicrobials, including florfenicol and colistin, maintained 100% efficacy against all isolates throughout the study period. Conclusions The findings highlight the dynamic nature of AMR development in A. pleuropneumoniae and underscore the need for ongoing surveillance in the region. The emergence of highly resistant strains, particularly those resistant to cephalosporins, raises concerns about future treatment options. These results can guide evidence-based treatment strategies and enhance antimicrobial stewardship efforts in regional swine production. Furthermore, the study emphasizes the importance of local AMR data in guiding antimicrobial use policies and the need for a coordinated approach to combat AMR in veterinary medicine.

Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides (Mmm) is the causative agent of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP). Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is a viral disease of cattle caused by lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV). LSD and CBPP are both transboundary diseases spreading in the same areas of Africa and Asia. A combination vaccine to control CBPP and LSD offers significant value to small-scale livestock keepers as a single administration. Access to a bivalent vaccine may improve vaccination rates for both pathogens. In the present study, we evaluated the LSDV/CBPP live combined vaccine by testing the generation of virus neutralizing antibodies, immunogenicity, and safety on target species. In-vitro assessment of the Mycoplasma effect on LSDV growth in cell culture was evaluated by infectious virus titration and qPCR during 3 serial passages, whereas in-vivo interference was assessed through the antibody response to vaccination. This combined Mmm/LSDV vaccine could be used to protect cattle against both diseases with a single vaccination in the endemic countries. There were no adverse reactions detected in this study and inoculated cattle produced high levels of specific antibodies starting from day 7 post-vaccination, suggesting that this combination vaccine is both safe and effective.

Porcine contagious pleuropneumonia (PCP), caused by Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae (APP), is a highly contagious disease that leads to significant economic losses in the swine industry. Current vaccines are ineffective due to the presence of multiple serotypes and the absence of a predominant seasonal serotype, underscoring the need for vaccines with broad-spectrum protection. Previous studies identified galT and galU as promising antigen candidates. In this study, we expressed and characterized a soluble recombinant galT-galU protein (rgalT-galU) from the pET-28a-galT-galU plasmid. The protein, with a molecular weight of 73 kDa, exhibited pronounced immunogenicity in murine models, as indicated by a significant elevation in IgG titers determined through an indirect ELISA. This immune response was further corroborated by substantial antigen-specific splenic lymphocyte proliferation, with a stimulation index of 51.5%. Immunization also resulted in elevated serum cytokines levels of IL-4, IL-12, and IFN-γ, as detected by cytokine assays. Vaccination with rgalT-galU provided immunoprotection against three predominant APP strains (APP1, APP5b, and APP7), achieving protection rates of 71.4%, 71.4%, and 85.7%, respectively. It also effectively mitigated pulmonary lesions and neutrophil infiltration, as verified by histopathological and immunohistochemical analyses. These results indicate that rgalT-galU is a promising candidate for developing cross-protective subunit vaccines against APP infection.