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In 1900, some 100,000 people living in Bulgaria-2 percent of the country's population-could be described as Greek, whether by nationality, language, or religion. The complex identities of the population-proud heirs of ancient Hellenic colonists, loyal citizens of their Bulgarian homeland, members of a wider Greek diasporic community, devout followers of the Orthodox Patriarchate in Istanbul, and reluctant supporters of the Greek government in Athens-became entangled in the growing national tensions between Bulgaria and Greece during the first half of the twentieth century. InBetween Two Motherlands, Theodora Dragostinova explores the shifting allegiances of this Greek minority in Bulgaria. Diverse social groups contested the meaning of the nation, shaping and reshaping what it meant to be Greek and Bulgarian during the slow and painful transition from empire to nation-states in the Balkans. In these decades, the region was racked by a series of upheavals (the Balkan Wars, World War I, interwar population exchanges, World War II, and Communist revolutions). The Bulgarian Greeks were caught between the competing agendas of two states increasingly bent on establishing national homogeneity. Based on extensive research in the archives of Bulgaria and Greece, as well as fieldwork in the two countries, Dragostinova shows that the Greek population did not blindly follow Greek nationalist leaders but was torn between identification with the land of their birth and loyalty to the Greek cause. Many emigrated to Greece in response to nationalist pressures; others sought to maintain their Greek identity and traditions within Bulgaria; some even switched sides when it suited their personal interests. National loyalties remained fluid despite state efforts to fix ethnic and political borders by such means as population movements, minority treaties, and stringent citizenship rules. The lessons of a case such as this continue to reverberate wherever and whenever states try to adjust national borders in regions long inhabited by mixed populations.

In Jerusalem, Israeli and Jordanian militias patrolled a fortified, impassable Green Line from 1948 until 1967. In Nicosia, two walls and a buffer zone have segregated Turkish and Greek Cypriots since 1963. In Belfast, \"peaceline\" barricades have separated working-class Catholics and Protestants since 1969. In Beirut, civil war from 1974 until 1990 turned a cosmopolitan city into a lethal patchwork of ethnic enclaves. In Mostar, the Croatian and Bosniak communities have occupied two autonomous sectors since 1993. These cities were not destined for partition by their social or political histories. They were partitioned by politicians, citizens, and engineers according to limited information, short-range plans, and often dubious motives. How did it happen? How can it be avoided? Divided Citiesexplores the logic of violent urban partition along ethnic lines-when it occurs, who supports it, what it costs, and why seemingly healthy cities succumb to it. Planning and conservation experts Jon Calame and Esther Charlesworth offer a warning beacon to a growing class of cities torn apart by ethnic rivals. Field-based investigations in Beirut, Belfast, Jerusalem, Mostar, and Nicosia are coupled with scholarly research to illuminate the history of urban dividing lines, the social impacts of physical partition, and the assorted professional responses to \"self-imposed apartheid.\" Through interviews with people on both sides of a divide-residents, politicians, taxi drivers, built-environment professionals, cultural critics, and journalists-they compare the evolution of each urban partition along with its social impacts. The patterns that emerge support an assertion that division is a gradual, predictable, and avoidable occurrence that ultimately impedes intercommunal cooperation. With the voices of divided-city residents, updated partition maps, and previously unpublished photographs,Divided Citiesilluminates the enormous costs of physical segregation.

Following the defeat of the Greek Army in 1922 by nationalist Turkish forces, the Convention of Lausanne in 1923 specified the first compulsory exchange of populations ratified by an international organization. The arrival in Greece of over 1.2 million refugees and their settlement proved to be a watershed with far-reaching consequences for the country. This book examines the exchange of populations and the agricultural settlement in Greek Macedonia of hundreds of thousands of refugees from Asia Minor and the Pontus, Eastern Thrace, the Caucasus, and Bulgaria during the inter-war period. It examines Greek state policy and the role of the Refugee Settlement Commission which, under the auspices of the League of Nations, carried out the refugee resettlement project. Macedonia, a multilingual and ethnically diverse society, experienced a transformation so dramatic that it literally changed its character. The author charts that change and attempts to provide the means of understanding it. The consequences of the settlement of refugees for the ethnological composition of the population, and its political, social, demographic, and economic implications are treated in the light of new archival material. Reality is separated from myth in examining the factors involved in the process of integration of the newcomers and assimilation of the inhabitants — both refugees and indigenous — of the New Lands into the nation-state. The author examines the impact of the agrarian reforms and land distribution and makes an effort to convert the climate of the rural society of Macedonia during the inter-war period. The antagonisms between Slavophone and Vlach-speaking natives and refugee newcomers regarding the reallocation of former Muslim properties had significant ramifications for the political events in the region in the years to come. Other recurring themes in the book include the geographical distribution of the refugees, changing patterns of settlement and toponyms, the organisation of health services in the countryside, as well as the execution of irrigation and drainage works in marshlands. The book also throws light upon and analyses the puzzling mixture of achievement and failure which characterizes the history of the region during this transitional period. As the first successful refugee resettlement project of its kind, the ‘refugee experiment’ in Macedonia could provide a template for similar projects involving refugee movements in many parts of the world today.

Europe has a long history of state-led population displacement on ethnic grounds. The nationalist argument of ethnic homogeneity has been a crucial factor in the mapping of the continent. At no time has this been more the case than during and after the Second World War.

The current surge of displaced and trafficked children, child soldiers, and child refugees rekindles the virtually dead letter of the Genocide Convention prohibition on transferring children of one group to another. This book focuses on the gap between genocide as a legal term and genocidal forcible child transfer as a catastrophic experience that disrupts a group's continuity. It probes the Genocide Convention's boundaries and draws attention to the diverse, yet highly similar, patterns of forcible child transfers cases such as colonial genocide in the US, Canada, and Australia, Jewish-Yemeni immigrants in Israel, children of Republican parents during the Spanish Civil War and its aftermath, and Operation Peter Pan in Cuba. The analysis highlights the consequences of the under-inclusive protection granted only to four groups. Ruth Amir argues effectively for the need to add an Amending Protocol to the Genocide Convention to protect from forcible transfer to children of any identifiable group of persons perpetrated with the intent to destroy the group as such. This proposed provision together with Communications and Rapid Inquiry Procedures will highlight the gravity of forcible child transfers and contribute to the prevention and punishment of genocide.

International law prohibits the transfer of population into occupied territory. As there is no provision defining the term nor jurisprudence interpreting it, the precise and correct meaning of the prohibition has been highly debated. The prohibition was first stipulated in Article 49 (6) GC IV and is echoed in Article 8 (2) (b) (viii) ICC Statute by mainly using the same wording. However, in contrast to the convention-based norm, Article 8 (2) (b) (viii) ICC Statute additionally specifies that any transfer, “directly or indirectly”, constitutes a violation of international law. The inclusion of these words gives further rise to the challenge of interpreting this provision. By scrutinising the Israeli settlement project, the article therefore aims at identifying which state conduct amounts to a ‘population transfer’ with an emphasis on the specific forms of ‘indirect population transfers’. Das Völkerrecht verbietet die Überführung von Teilen der eigenen Zivilbevölkerung durch die Besatzungsmacht in von ihr besetztes Gebiet. Da der Begriff der Bevölkerungsüberführung in keiner Vorschrift definiert ist und auch keine Erläuterung durch die völkerrechtliche Rechtsprechung erfahren hat, ist umstritten, welche Verhaltensweisen hiervon erfasst sind. Das Verbot wurde erstmals in Artikel 49 Abs. 6 der IV. Genfer Konvention kodifiziert und findet sich mit weitgehend identischem Wortlaut in Artikel 8 Abs. 2 lit. b (viii) IStGH-Statut wieder. Neu ist indes die Ergänzung der Tathandlung der Überführung durch die Worte „direkt oder indirekt“. Der Beitrag soll daher im Lichte des israelischen Siedlungsbaus untersuchen, welche staatlichen Verhaltensweisen unter den Tatbestand fallen, wobei der Schwerpunkt auf Formen der indirekten Bevölkerungsüberführung liegt.

A fifth of West Germany's post-1945 population consisted of ethnic German refugees expelled from Eastern Europe, a quarter of whom came from Silesia. As the richest territory lost inside Germany's interwar borders, Silesia was a leading objective for territorial revisionists, many of whom were themselves expellees. The Lost German East examines how and why millions of Silesian expellees came to terms with the loss of their homeland. Applying theories of memory and nostalgia, as well as recent studies on ethnic cleansing, Andrew Demshuk shows how, over time, most expellees came to recognize that the idealized world they mourned no longer existed. Revising the traditional view that most of those expelled sought a restoration of prewar borders so they could return to the east, Demshuk offers a new answer to the question of why, after decades of violent upheaval, peace and stability took root in West Germany during the tense early years of the Cold War.

Germans have been one of the most mobile and dispersed populations on earth. Communities of German speakers, scattered around the globe, have long believed they could recreate their Heimat (homeland) wherever they moved, and that their enclaves could remain truly German. Furthermore, the history of Germany is inextricably tied to Germans outside the homeland who formed new communities that often retained their Germanness. Emigrants, including political, economic, and religious exiles such as Jewish Germans, fostered a nostalgia for home, which, along with longstanding mutual ties of family, trade, and culture, bound them to Germany. The Heimat Abroad is the first book to examine the problem of Germany's long and complex relationship to ethnic Germans outside its national borders. Beyond defining who is German and what makes them so, the book reconceives German identity and history in global terms and challenges the nation state and its borders as the sole basis of German nationalism.

International law prohibits the transfer of population into occupied territory. As there is no provision defining the term nor jurisprudence interpreting it, the precise and correct meaning of the prohibition has been highly debated. The prohibition was first stipulated in Article 49 (6) GC IV and is echoed in Article 8 (2) (b) (viii) ICC Statute by mainly using the same wording. However, in contrast to the convention-based norm, Article 8 (2) (b) (viii) ICC Statute additionally specifies that any transfer, “directly or indirectly”, constitutes a violation of international law. The inclusion of these words gives further rise to the challenge of interpreting this provision. By scrutinising the Israeli settlement project, the article therefore aims at identifying which state conduct amounts to a ‘population transfer’ with an emphasis on the specific forms of ‘indirect population transfers’. Das Völkerrecht verbietet die Überführung von Teilen der eigenen Zivilbevölkerung durch die Besatzungsmacht in von ihr besetztes Gebiet. Da der Begriff der Bevölkerungsüberführung in keiner Vorschrift definiert ist und auch keine Erläuterung durch die völkerrechtliche Rechtsprechung erfahren hat, ist umstritten, welche Verhaltensweisen hiervon erfasst sind. Das Verbot wurde erstmals in Artikel 49 Abs. 6 der IV. Genfer Konvention kodifiziert und findet sich mit weitgehend identischem Wortlaut in Artikel 8 Abs. 2 lit. b (viii) IStGH-Statut wieder. Neu ist indes die Ergänzung der Tathandlung der Überführung durch die Worte „direkt oder indirekt“. Der Beitrag soll daher im Lichte des israelischen Siedlungsbaus untersuchen, welche staatlichen Verhaltensweisen unter den Tatbestand fallen, wobei der Schwerpunkt auf Formen der indirekten Bevölkerungsüberführung liegt.

Ethnic Cleansing in the Balkans looks at the phenomenon of ethnic cleansing in the Balkans over the last two hundred years. It argues that the events that occurred during this time can be demystified, that the South East of Europe was not destined to become violent and that constructions of the Balkans as endemically violent misses a important political point and historical point.Carmichael provides an account of ethnic cleansing in the Balkans as a single historical phenomenon and brings together a vast array of primary and secondary sources to produce a concise and accessible argument. This book will be of interest to students and researchers of European studies, history and comparative politics.