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Background Blastocystis sp. is a common protozoan parasite frequently identified in the digestive tract of humans and a large variety of animal hosts worldwide, including birds. It exhibits a large genetic diversity with the identification of 17 subtypes (STs), most of them with low host specificity. ST6 and ST7 were identified in birds and suggested to represent avian STs only in the context of scarce small-scale epidemiological surveys. Moreover, these two STs also account for a significant proportion of human infections whose zoonotic origin has never been clearly confirmed. Therefore, molecular screening of Blastocystis sp. was conducted by quantitative real-time PCR for fecal samples from poultry farms and their in-contact humans from slaughterhouses in Lebanon. In parallel, a control group consisting of patients hospitalized in the same geographical area and reporting no contact with poultry was also screened for the presence of the parasite. Results The overall prevalence of Blastocystis sp. was shown to reach around 32% in chicken samples and 65% in the farms screened. All the avian isolates were subtyped and belonged to either ST6 or ST7, with a large predominance of ST6. Fifty-four percent of slaughterhouse staff members were positive for Blastocystis sp. compared with a similar prevalence of 56% in hospitalized patients. ST3 was predominant in both human cohorts followed by either ST1 then ST2 among slaughterhouse staff or by ST2 then ST1 among hospitalized patients. ST6 was also identified in two slaughterhouse workers and not in the group of hospitalized patients. Gene sequence identity was observed between chicken and human ST6 isolates from the same slaughterhouse. Conclusions Our data revealed a high prevalence of Blastocystis sp. in chicken samples and confirmed that ST6 and ST7 represented avian-adapted STs. Among both human cohorts, Blastocystis sp. infection was shown to exceed 50% with a predominance of ST3. The identification of ST6 in slaughterhouse staff members confirmed the zoonotic transmission of this ST through repeated and direct contact between chickens and their handlers.

Apicomplexans, including species of Eimeria , pose a real threat to the health and wellbeing of animals and humans. Eimeria parasites do not infect humans but cause an important economic impact on livestock, in particular on the poultry industry. Despite its high prevalence and financial costs, little is known about the cell biology of these ‘cosmopolitan’ parasites found all over the world. In this review, we discuss different aspects of the life cycle and stages of Eimeria species, focusing on cellular structures and organelles typical of the coccidian family as well as genus-specific features, complementing some ‘unknowns’ with what is described in the closely related coccidian Toxoplasma gondii .

Gut microbiota has been demonstrated to be involved in intestinal nutrition, defense, and immunity, as well as participating in disease progression. This study was to investigate gut microbiota changes in chickens challenged with netB-positive Clostridium perfringens strain (CP1) and/or the predisposing Eimeria species (Eimeria) and fed diets with fishmeal supplementation. In addition, the effects of lauric acid, a medium-chain fatty acid (MCFA), on necrotic enteritis (NE) reduction and modulation of microbiota were evaluated. The results demonstrated that microbial communities in the jejunum were distinct from those in the cecum, and the microbial community change was more significant in jejunum. Challenge of CP1 in conjunction with Eimeria significantly reduced species diversity in jejunal microbiota, but cecal microbiota remained stable. In the jejunum, CP1 challenge increased the abundance of the genera of Clostridium sensu stricto 1, Escherichia Shigella, and Weissella, but significantly decreased the population of Lactobacillus. Eimeria infection on its own was unable to promote NE, demonstrating decrements of Clostridium sensu stricto 1 and Lactobacillus. Co-infection with CP1 and Eimeria reproduced the majority of NE lesions with significant increment of Clostridium sensu stricto 1 and reduction in Lactobacillus. The advance of changes on these two taxa increased the severity of NE lesions. Further analyses of metagenomeSeq, STAMP, and LEfSe consistently showed significant overgrowth of Clostridium sensu stricto 1 was associated with NE. The supplementation of lauric acid did not reduce NE incidence and severity but decreased the relative abundance of Escherichia Shigella. In conclusion, significant overgrowth of C. perfringens as well as other Clostridium species in Clostridium sensu stricto 1 with the decrement of Lactobacillus in the jejunum is the featured microbiota correlated with NE. Controlling proliferation of Clostridium sensu stricto 1 and manipulation of Lactobacillus in the jejunum should be the strategy to prevent NE.

The poultry red mite, Dermanyssus gallinae , has been described for decades as a threat to the egg production industry, posing serious animal health and welfare concerns, adversely affecting productivity, and impacting public health. Research activities dedicated to controlling this parasite have increased significantly. Their veterinary and human medical impact, more particularly their role as a disease vector, is better understood. Nevertheless, red mite infestation remains a serious concern, particularly in Europe, where the prevalence of red mites is expected to increase, as a result of recent hen husbandry legislation changes, increased acaricide resistance, climate warming, and the lack of a sustainable approach to control infestations. The main objective of the current work was to review the factors contributing to this growing threat and to discuss their recent development in Europe. We conclude that effective and sustainable treatment approach to control poultry red mite infestation is urgently required, included integrated pest management.

The possibility that Dermanyssus gallinae , the poultry red mite, could act as a vector of infectious disease-causing pathogens has always intrigued researchers and worried commercial chicken farmers, as has its ubiquitous distribution. For decades, studies have been carried out which suggest that there is an association between a wide range of pathogens and D. gallinae , with the transmission of some of these pathogens mediated by D. gallinae as vector. The latter include the avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC), Salmonella enterica serovars Enteritidis and Gallinarum and influenza virus. Several approaches have been adopted to investigate the relationship between D. gallinae and pathogens. In this comprehensive review, we critically describe available strategies and methods currently available for conducting trials, as well as outcomes, analyzing their possible strengths and weaknesses, with the aim to provide researchers with useful tools for correctly approach the study of the vectorial role of D. gallinae . Graphical Abstract

Globally, the poultry industry is seriously threatened by coccidiosis caused by various species of Eimeria . This protozoan parasite inhabits the epithelial lining of the gastrointestinal tract of poultry globally and can cause serious clinical disease. The present study was carried out on poultry farms located in various regions of Kashmir, India, to investigate the prevalence and phylogenetic relationships of Eimeria species affecting broiler chickens. Over a period of one year, fecal samples were collected from 60 poultry farms in Kashmir and morphological and molecular techniques were employed for Eimeria species identification. Results revealed a high prevalence of coccidiosis, with 58.3% (35/60) of farms positive for Eimeria . The most prevalent species were E. tenella (31/35, 88.6%) followed by E. acervulina (25/35, 71.4%), E. maxima (19/35, 54.3%), E. mitis (18/35, 51.4%), and E. necatrix (9/35, 25.7%). Seasonal variation in prevalence was also observed, with the highest rates in autumn (86.7%) and summer (66.7%). Additionally, younger birds (3–4 weeks) exhibited higher infection rates (85.7%) compared to older birds (57.9%) (5–6 weeks). Mixed infection was found in 94.2% (33/35) of positive farms. Phylogenetic analysis using ITS1 sequences confirmed species clustering and revealed evolutionary relationships among Eimeria species. E. tenella and E. necatrix formed a distinct clade, while E. acervulina formed another. The study underscores the importance of molecular techniques in accurate species identification and provides valuable insights into the epidemiology of coccidiosis in poultry in Kashmir. Effective control strategies, including vaccination and improved management practices, are necessary to mitigate the economic losses associated with this widespread poultry disease.

Coccidiosis, an intestinal disease caused by Eimeria parasites, is responsible for major losses in the poultry industry by impacting chicken health. The gut microbiota is associated with health factors, such as nutrient exchange and immune system modulation, requiring understanding on the effects of Eimeria infection on the gut microbiota. This study aimed to determine the effects of Eimeria acervulina infection on the luminal and mucosal microbiota of the cecum (CeL and CeM) and ileum (IlL and IlM) at multiple time points (days 3, 5, 7, 10, and 14) post-infection. E. acervulina infection decreased evenness in CeL microbiota at day 10, increased richness in CeM microbiota at day 3 before decreasing richness at day 14, and decreased richness in IlL microbiota from day 3 to 10. CeL, CeM, and IlL microbiota differed between infected and control birds based on beta diversity at varying time points. Infection reduced relative abundance of bacterial taxa and some predicted metabolic pathways known for short-chain fatty acid production in CeL, CeM, and IlL microbiota, but further understanding of metabolic function is required. Despite E. acervulina primarily targeting the duodenum, our findings demonstrate the infection can impact bacterial diversity and abundance in the cecal and ileal microbiota.

Leucocytozoonosis is a vector-borne blood protozoal disease that affects birds worldwide. Although Egypt has a large-scale poultry industry, data on Leucocytozoon infections in broilers remain limited. This study reports the first detection of leucocytozoonosis in 24 broiler farms (180,000 birds) in El-Sharkia governorate, Egypt. The affected broiler flocks were raised in open poultry farms located near agricultural rice fields and water sources during the late summer season, which are conditions favorable for vector proliferation. Clinically, infected birds exhibited depression, anorexia, weight loss, and anemia, with mortality rates ranging from 0.5% to 2%. Postmortem examination revealed widespread hemorrhages across multiple organs and a large pool of blood in the abdominal cavity. Microscopic examination of blood smears and cell block preparations showed the presence of various gametocytes within leukocytes and erythrocytes. Histopathological examination identified characteristic megaloschizonts in multiple organs, including the kidneys, liver, lungs, muscles, heart, intestine, pancreas, and spleen, accompanied by hemorrhages, necrosis, and mononuclear cell infiltration, primarily lymphocytes and macrophages. Molecular identification using real-time PCR confirmed L. caulleryi infection, corroborating the hematological and pathological findings. This study provides key insights into L. caulleryi diagnosis, promotes awareness among veterinarians and poultry producers, and highlights the need for improved biosecurity.

Coccidiosis is a gastrointestinal disease caused by Eimeria parasites which leads to major economic losses in the poultry industry worldwide. Eimeria infection may alter the gut microbiota, which has been associated with chicken health and performance. This study aimed to determine the effects of Eimeria maxima infection on the luminal and mucosal microbiota of the cecum (CeL and CeM) at multiple time points post-infection (days 3, 5, 7, 10, and 14). Infection decreased Shannon diversity at d 3 ( P = 0.03), increased observed features (ASVs) at d 5 ( P < 0.01), and increased Shannon diversity at d 10 ( P = 0.04) in the CeL microbiota compared to the control. In CeM microbiota, infection increased observed features at d 5 ( P = 0.03), but later decreased observed features at d 14 ( P = 0.01). Relative abundance of potential butyrate-producing bacteria such as [ Ruminococcus ] torques group in CeL and Butyricicoccus in CeM were decreased in infected birds, and some metabolic pathways related to butyrate production were predicted to be decreased. These findings show E. maxima may affect cecal microbiota alpha diversity in a time-dependent manner and reduce abundance of bacteria potentially important to gut health.

A cross-sectional study was conducted in Bangladesh to determine the prevalence, molecular detection, and risk factors of Eimeria spp. infection in native and exotic chickens under various management systems. A total of 1,500 fecal samples were collected from different breeds, age groups, and sexes across multiple districts. Fecal examination using flotation and McMaster techniques identified positive cases, followed by molecular detection of Eimeria species. A questionnaire survey was also conducted to assess potential risk factors. Among the 1,500 chickens, 87 (5.8%) were positive for Eimeria oocysts, with higher prevalence in exotic breeds (7.96%) than native breeds (4.13%). The prevalence rates were 18.40%, 13.98%, 12.09%, and 3.40% in Aseel, Broiler, Sonali, and Deshi chickens, respectively, with no infection found in Naked Neck, Hilly, or Fayoumi breeds. Molecular analysis detected six Eimeria species: E. tenella was detected in 64 samples (62.07%) and in all breeds with the highest occurrence in Aseel. E. acervulina was the second most common species (25.28%), found in 23 samples from Deshi, Broiler and Sonali breeds. Other species, including E. brunetti , E. mitis , E. necatrix , and E. maxima , were rare and sparsely distributed. Chickens fed commercial feed (7.88%) had significantly higher infection rates (p < 0.0013) than those on local feed (3.99%). Intensive rearing systems (15.27%) showed higher infection rates compared to free-ranging systems, but no infection occurred in intensive systems without litter or semi-intensive systems. This is the first comprehensive report on infection status of Eimeria in chickens including all native breeds rearing in different management system in Bangladesh.