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The poultry industry in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is faced with feed insecurity, associated with high cost of feeds, and feed safety, associated with locally produced feeds often contaminated with mycotoxins. Mycotoxins, including aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), trichothecenes, and zearalenone (ZEN), are common contaminants of poultry feeds and feed ingredients from SSA. These mycotoxins cause deleterious effects on the health and productivity of chickens and can also be present in poultry food products, thereby posing a health hazard to human consumers of these products. This review summarizes studies of major mycotoxins in poultry feeds, feed ingredients, and poultry food products from SSA as well as aflatoxicosis outbreaks. Additionally reviewed are the worldwide regulation of mycotoxins in poultry feeds, the impact of major mycotoxins in the production of chickens, and the postharvest use of mycotoxin detoxifiers. In most studies, AFs are most commonly quantified, and levels above the European Union regulatory limits of 20 μg/kg are reported. Trichothecenes, FBs, ZEN, and OTA are also reported but are less frequently analyzed. Co-occurrences of mycotoxins, especially AFs and FBs, are reported in some studies. The effects of AFs on chickens’ health and productivity, carryover to their products, as well as use of mycotoxin binders are reported in few studies conducted in SSA. More research should therefore be conducted in SSA to evaluate occurrences, toxicological effects, and mitigation strategies to prevent the toxic effects of mycotoxins.

On a global scale, the poultry industry expands its wings in terms of meat and egg production to the masses. However, this industry itself requires a sustainable and permanent supply of different inputs, one of which is poultry feed and nutrition. Soybean is a versatile protein that is offered to poultry in different inclusion rates in commercial diets after being processed using various thermal and mechanical processing methods. Conventional commercial soybean meal is usually prepared by the extraction of oil from whole soybeans using solvents, producing a meal that has approximately 1% crude fat. Without oil extraction, full-fat soybean (FFSBM) is produced, and it is an excellent source of dietary energy and protein for poultry with a nutritional profile of 38–40% protein and 18–20% crude fat, on average. FFSBM has less crude protein (CP) than solvent-extracted soybean meal (SE SBM) but higher metabolizable energy due to higher fat content. Alternatively, extruded expeller processing produces defatted soybean meal containing approximately 6–7% crude fat. Studies have demonstrated that FFSBM can be used in poultry diets to improve poultry nutrition, performance, and quality of the poultry meat and eggs produced. This review aims to evaluate the nutrition and use of meals prepared from conventional and high-oleic soybeans using various feed processing methods.

Microbial enzymes improve feed digestibility but face challenges of high cost and low stability. In this study, we optimized the production of protease, lipase, cellulase, and amylase from Bacillus subtilis using response surface methodology. We purified the enzymes and encapsulated them in alginate beads to enhance performance. Encapsulation widened their active pH and temperature ranges. It also improved storage stability, with encapsulated enzymes retaining 60–74% activity after 30 days at 4 °C compared to 34–42% for free enzymes. These results show that alginate encapsulation increases enzyme robustness under variable conditions. The novelty of this work lies in the simultaneous optimization of four enzymes from one strain and their stabilization using a simple food-grade carrier. While the study demonstrates strong in vitro potential for poultry feed enrichment, in vivo trials are required to confirm practical application.

Poultry is an important subsector in Ethiopia that contributes to food security, nutrition, and rural livelihoods. However, the high cost and limited availability of conventional feed ingredients, such as soybean meal and fishmeal, remain major issues. This review evaluates the potential of dried blood–rumen content mixture (DBRCM) as a sustainable, cost‐effective alternative feed source for Ethiopian poultry farms. Derived from abattoir by‐products, DBRCM offers a high‐protein (up to 80% crude protein) and fiber‐rich supplement that enhances growth performance, feed efficiency, and carcass quality in poultry. Ethiopia's poultry sector faces unique challenges, including feed scarcity (70% of production costs), reliance on imported feed ingredients, and poor waste management in slaughterhouses. Integrating DBRCM into poultry diets could reduce feed costs by 15%–30%, repurpose 1.2 million tons of annual abattoir waste, and align with circular economy principles. However, challenges such as palatability, processing safety, and optimal inclusion levels (5%–10% for broilers, 3%–7% for layers) require further research. This review synthesizes existing literature on DBRCM's nutritional benefits, economic viability, and environmental advantages, while identifying knowledge gaps specific to Ethiopia. We recommend policy support for by‐product valorization, investment in local processing technologies, and farmer training to facilitate adoption. By reducing dependence on costly imports and improving waste recycling, DBRCM can enhance poultry productivity and sustainability. This review highlights the potential of dried blood–rumen content mixtures (DBRCM) as a sustainable poultry feed in Ethiopia. DBRCM is rich in protein and fiber, improves poultry performance, and reduces feed costs by up to 30%. Adoption supports waste recycling and a circular economy by repurposing abattoir by‐products.

Background Feedstuffs and poultry feeds of low quality are major limitations to the growth of the poultry sector. Methods A qualitative study approach using key informant interviews was used to collect information. The thematic analysis method using a prescribed coding frame was used to analyze the data. Three themes emerged from the data: overview and business environment, consequences and propositions, and quality and enforcement. Results The study revealed that poultry feed sub sector is constituted by several players operating at varying scale of business dealing in either imported concentrates, feed stuffs or complete feed. The sector was not well regulated and there was no systematic surveillance done to evaluate the quality of products (feeds and feedstuffs) sold to the farmers. Some regions did not have any feed analytical facilities and therefore farmers mainly depended on subjective judgement using their sense of sight, smell, taste and touch to evaluate the quality of feedstuffs. Regulatory services such as certification of animal feed mills were insufficient not surprising that poultry farmers complained about feedstuff adulteration. The only requirement in place to operate feed and feedstuff business was an annual trade license. The actors/players in poultry feed business operated independently of their formal body or association. Conclusion This study showed that there is legislation gap in the animal feed sector. The players in the sector were at liberty not to follow standards that ensure quality feeds and feedstuffs.

A total of 105 different types of poultry feed samples from South Africa were simultaneously analysed for the presence of 16 mycotoxins using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer (UHPLC-MS/MS). The data revealed the presence of 16 mycotoxins in the various poultry feed samples. Fumonisin B1 (FB1) was the most dominant recovered from 100% of samples analysed at concentrations ranging between 38.7 and 7125.3 µg/kg. This was followed by zearalenone (ZEN) (range: 0.1–429 µg/kg) and deoxynivalenol (DON) (range: 2.5–154 µg/kg). Samples were also found to be contaminated with fumonisin B2 (FB2) (range: 0.7–125.1 µg/kg), fumonisin B3 (FB3) (range: 0.1–125.1 µg/kg), α-zearalenol (α-ZEL) (range: 0.6–20 µg/kg ), β-zearalenol (β-ZEL) (range: 0.2–22.1 µg/kg), 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-ADON) (range: 0.1–12.9 µg/kg) and 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (15-ADON) (range: 1.7–41.9 µg/kg). Alternaria mycotoxin, i.e., Alternariol monomethyl ether (AME) was recovered in 100% of samples at concentrations that ranged from 0.3–155.5 µg/kg. Aflatoxins (AFs) had an incidence rate of 92% with generally low concentration levels ranging from 0.1–3.7 µg/kg. Apart from these metabolites, 2 type A trichothecenes (THs), i.e., HT-2 toxin (HT-2) (range: 0.2–5.9 µg/kg) and T-2 toxin (T-2) (range: 0.1–15.3 µg/kg) were also detected. Mycotoxin contamination in South African poultry feed constitutes a concern as correspondingly high contamination levels, such as those observed herein are likely to affect birds, which can be accompanied by severe health implications, thus compromising animal productivity in the country. Such exposures, primarily to more than one mycotoxin concurrently, may elicit noticeable synergistic and or additive effects on poultry birds.

This study investigates the proximate composition, aflatoxin contamination, and their implications on the health and wellbeing of broilers and layers, as well as the comparison from two poultry feed manufacturing feed companies (C1 and C2) located in Jos and Kaduna, Nigeria. A total of 168 samples were collected from four feed types (starters, finishers, chicks, growers) from these companies. Samples were ground, sieved, and analyzed for moisture, protein, fat, ash, fiber, carbohydrate, energy, and aflatoxin content using standard methods. Proximate analysis results revealed significant differences in nutritional components between the two locations. In C1, the moisture content ranged from 8 to 18%, while in C2, where moisture levels ranged from 8 to 17%. The protein content in C1 and C2 ranged from 14.5% to 24% ~ 25%. Fat content was similar in both companies (5%–8%) as was the ash content (5%–8%). Carbohydrate content ranged from 46 to 62% in C1 and from 46% to 60.8% in C2. Aflatoxin levels exceeded the recommended threshold of 20 μg/kg, particularly in starter feeds from C1 (S1, S3, S7) and in the finisher feeds from C2 (S1, S4). Statistical analyses revealed that moisture content and aflatoxin levels were the dominant factors influencing feed quality. Moisture content contributed to fungal growth and subsequent contamination, with a positive correlation between moisture and aflatoxin levels (r = 0.92) and a negative correlation between moisture and protein (r = − 0.68). Higher moisture levels may reduce protein concentration and increase the risk of aflatoxin contamination. The study indicates that moisture content and aflatoxin contamination significantly affect poultry health across both plants. Broilers exposed to high aflatoxin levels experienced reduced growth rates, immunosuppression, and increased mortality. Layers showed decreased egg production and quality with prolonged exposure. The recommendations include improved moisture control, regular aflatoxin testing, and the use of detoxifying agents to mitigate contamination, ensuring both poultry health and consumer safety.

Objective: The study was primarily conducted to assess the stakeholders’ knowledge regarding the contamination caused by heavy metals in poultry feedstuffs. The concentration of some heavy metals (lead, chromium, cadmium, and nickel) and macro-minerals (sodium, potassium, and calcium) was also analyzed in poultry feeds collected from selected local markets in Sherpur district, Bangladesh. Materials and Methods: A well-structured questionnaire survey was used to investigate different stakeholders’ perspectives in relation to metal contamination in feed. Heavy metals and calcium were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The flame emission spectrophotometric technique was applied to determine sodium and potassium. Results: The majority of the stakeholders (90%) were found to have no knowledge regarding heavy metal contamination. Lead and nickel concentrations were below the detectable level in the collected samples. The average concentration of chromium in Jhenaigati upazila was four times higher than in Nalitabari upazila, at 21.806 mg kg−1 and 5.452 mg kg−1, respectively. The concentrations of cadmium in both brand and nonbrand samples exceeded the maximum allowable limit set by the European Union at 1.329 mg kg−1 and 1.328 mg kg−1, respectively. Sodium, potassium, and calcium were found in the ranges of 0.0011%–0.0035%, 0.0010%–0.0013%, and 0.0080%–0.0305%, which were extremely low in concentration compared to the minimum requirement in poultry feed. Conclusion: Regular surveillance and governance systems should be incorporated into national policy to cease the hazardous impacts of heavy metals through feed contamination. From a nutritional viewpoint, poultry feeds need to be critically formulated.

The purpose of this work is to develop and validate an appropriate solvent solution and quantitative thin layer chromatography (TLC) method for determining the aflatoxins content of chicken feeds and dietary grains. To obtain the optimal mobile phase, samples were extracted with methanol/water (3:1) + 5% sodium chloride and partitioned using several solvent systems using preparative TLC. Camag TLC scanner 3 was used to scan the TLC plates at 366 nm and quantify them using JustTLC software. The method was tested for linearity, specificity, accuracy, precision, sensitivity, and robustness in accordance with ICH recommendations, and then utilized to screen 132 Nigerian poultry/food samples for total aflatoxins (TAFs). The best separation of aflatoxins was achieved using acetonitrile and dichloromethane (3:17) mobile phase over an average run time of 45 min, resulting in linear calibration curves ( > 0.99) in the concentration range limit of quantitation (LoQ) to 50 ng/spot with a limit of detection of <2.0 ng/g and a LoQ of <4.0 ng/gm for all aflatoxins in all spiked samples. When the proposed TLC method was compared to an optimized high-performance liquid chromatography method, an excellent linear regression was obtained ( > 95%). Seventy seven (58.33%) of the 132 samples examined were positive for aflatoxins, with mean values ranging from 3.57 ± 2.55 to 37.31 ± 34.06 ng/gm for aflatoxin B1 and 6.67 ± 0.00 to 38.02 ± 31.52 ng/gm for TAFs, respectively. The results demonstrate the feasibility of using the suggested TLC method in conjunction with a novel solvent solution (free of carcinogenic chloroform) for the rapid and accurate measurement of TAFs in foods/feeds.

This study evaluated the potential of brown mushroom stem (BMS) powder as a sustainable feed ingredient in poultry diets by assessing its effects on growth performance, health status, and environmental impact. Specifically, the research investigated whether the partial replacement of soybean meal with BMS powder could maintain productive performance while improving physiological responses and, gas emission in Lohmann LSL Lite chicks. The study involved 160 3-week-old Lohmann LSL Lite chicks. After a 4-day adaptation period on the control diet, the chicks were assigned to four dietary groups: 0% (control), 2%, 4%, and 6% BMS of replacing soybean meal. BMS was sourced from a local commercial mushroom producer. The stems were cleaned, washed, and freeze-dried to reduce their moisture content to below 5% by weight, ensuring extended shelf life. The freeze-dried BMS were then finely ground into powder for inclusion in the chicken feed. Each group consisted of five replicates, and each replicate had eight chicks. Feed intake (FI) and growth performance were recorded weekly over a 5-week duration in a cage system. Gas emissions from excreta were measured using a sensor-based system. At the end of the study, randomly selected birds were slaughtered for blood and organ collection for further analysis. Data analysis was performed using one-way ANOVA in SAS 9.4 software. Polynomial contrasts were used to analyze the linear and quadratic effects of increasing levels of BMS powder. The results showed no significant ( < 0.05) differences in final body weight, weight gain, feed intake, and feed conversion ratio (FCR) among groups. Internal organ weight also showed no significant ( < 0.05) difference among groups, indicating the safety of BMS powder incorporation in chick diets. Blood biochemical parameters, including total protein, globulin, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT), uric acid, and cholesterol, exhibited both linear ( < 0.05) and quadratic ( < 0.05) effects with varying levels of BMS powder. Interestingly, gas emissions, including carbon dioxide (CO ), ammonia (NH ), and methane (CH ), measured on days 31 and 32 of the experiment, exhibited significant quadratic responses ( < 0.05) to increasing levels of BMS powder in the diet. While these effects were modest and limited to a short observation window, they suggest a potential short-term environmental benefit that warrants further investigation. These results indicate that BMS powder inclusion may positively influence certain biochemical markers and reduce the environmental footprint of poultry production. BMS powder could be a potential and sustainable replacement for soybean meal in poultry diets. It maintained consistent growth performance and organ weight, reduced gas emissions, and positively influenced blood biochemical markers, emphasizing its potential benefits. Future research should validate these findings in commercial settings and explore their long-term applications for broader adoption in eco-friendly production systems.