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The scientific community has proposed terms such as non-viable probiotics, paraprobiotics, ghostbiotics, heat-inactivated probiotics or, most commonly, postbiotics, to refer to inanimate microorganisms and/or their components that confer health benefits. This article addresses the various characteristics of different definitions of ‘postbiotics’ that have emerged over past years. In 2021, the International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) defined a postbiotic as “a preparation of inanimate microorganisms and/or their components that confers a health benefit on the host”. This definition of postbiotic requires that the whole or components of inactivated microbes be present, with or without metabolic end products. The definition proposed by ISAPP is comprehensive enough to allow the development of postbiotics from different microorganisms, to be applied in different body sites, encouraging innovation in a promising area for any regulatory category and for companion or production animals, and plant or human health. From a technological perspective, probiotic products may contain inanimate microorganisms, which have the potential to impart a health benefit. However, their contribution to health in most cases has not been established, even if at least one probiotic has been shown to confer the same health benefit by live or inanimate cells.

The design of functional foods has grown recently as an answer to rising consumers’ concerns and demands for natural, nutritional and healthy food products. Nanoencapsulation is a technique based on enclosing a bioactive compound (BAC) in liquid, solid or gaseous states within a matrix or inert material for preserving the coated substance (food or flavor molecules/ingredients). Nanoencapsulation can improve stability of BACs, improving the regulation of their release at physiologically active sites. Regarding materials for food and nutraceutical applications, the most used are carbohydrate-, protein- or lipid-based alternatives such as chitosan, peptide–chitosan and β-lactoglobulin nanoparticles (NPs) or emulsion biopolymer complexes. On the other hand, the main BACs used in foods for health promoting, including antioxidants, antimicrobials, vitamins, probiotics and prebiotics and others (minerals, enzymes and flavoring compounds). Nanotechnology can also play notable role in the development of programmable food, an original futuristic concept promising the consumers to obtain high quality food of desired nutritive and sensory characteristics.

Numerous studies have established that probiotics or prebiotics can relieve the symptoms of allergic rhinitis (AR), but their mechanism of action remain underexplored. This study aimed to observe the clinical efficacy of probiotics combined with prebiotics in seasonal AR patients and explore their underlying mechanisms. We conducted a prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. The test group was given probiotics combined with prebiotics, whereas the placebo group was administered simulated preparation for 90 days. Outcome measures included total nasal symptom score (TNSS), visual analog scale, rhinitis quality of life questionnaire, fractional exhaled nitric oxide, and the rate and intensity of Loratadine use. Serum TNF-α, INF-γ, IL-4, IL-17, and IgE levels were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Intestinal microbiota was detected by 16S rRNA gene sequencing and quantitative PCR. Short-chain fatty acids were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. 106 participants (N = 53 for both test group and placebo group) completed the study. From baseline to day 91, mean difference between groups (MDBG) in the reduction of TNSS was -1.1 (-2.2, -0.1) (P = 0.04); MDBG in the increment of TNF-α was 7.1 pg/ml (95% CI: 0.8, 13.4, P = 0.03); the INF-γ level was significantly increased (P = 0.01), whereas that of IL-17 (P = 0.005) was significantly decreased in the test group, whilst mean difference within groups was not statistically significant in the placebo group; MDBG in the increment of acetate was 12.4% (95% CI: 7.1%, 17.6%, P <0.001). After the administration of probiotics and prebiotics, the composition and metabolic function of the intestinal microbiota were significantly altered and positively related to the beneficial effect on seasonal AR patients. Probiotics combined with prebiotics administered for 90 days significantly attenuated the symptoms of seasonal AR patients, which may related to fluctuations in the composition and metabolic function of the intestinal microbiota and further ameliorating host immunity.

With the recent availability and upgrading of many emerging intestinal microbes sequencing technologies, our research on intestinal microbes is changing rapidly. A variety of investigations have found that intestinal microbes are essential for immune system regulation and energy metabolism homeostasis, which impacts many critical organs. The liver is the first organ to be traversed by the intestinal portal vein, and there is a strong bidirectional link between the liver and intestine. Many intestinal factors, such as intestinal microbes, bacterial composition, and intestinal bacterial metabolites, are deeply involved in liver homeostasis. Intestinal microbial dysbiosis and increased intestinal permeability are associated with the pathogenesis of many chronic liver diseases, such as alcoholic fatty liver disease (AFLD), non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), chronic hepatitis B (CHB), chronic hepatitis C (CHC), autoimmune liver disease (AIH) and the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Intestinal permeability and dysbacteriosis often lead to Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and metabolites entering in serum. Then, Toll-like receptors activation in the liver induces the exposure of the intestine and liver to many small molecules with pro-inflammatory properties. And all of these eventually result in various liver diseases. In this paper, we have discussed the current evidence on the role of various intestinal microbes in different chronic liver diseases. As well as potential new therapeutic approaches are proposed in this review, such as antibiotics, probiotics, and prebiotics, which may have an improvement in liver diseases.

Diverse terms have been used in the literature to refer to the health benefits obtained from the administration of non-viable microorganisms or their cell fragments and metabolites. In an effort to provide continuity to this emerging field, the International Scientific Association of Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) convened a panel of experts to consider this category of substances and adopted the term postbiotic, which they defined as a “preparation of inanimate microorganisms and/or their components that confers a health benefit on the host.” This definition does not stipulate any specific health benefit, finished product, target population or regulatory status. In this perspective article, we focused on postbiotics developed for pharmaceutical uses, including medicinal products and medical devices. We address how this field is regulated for products based on inanimate microorganisms, marketing considerations and existing examples of postbiotics products developed as cosmetics for the skin, for vaginal health, and as orally consumed products. We focus on the European Union for regulatory aspects, but also give examples from other geographical areas.

The gut microbiota establishes a mutually beneficial relationship with the host starting from birth, impacting diverse metabolic and immunological processes. Dysbiosis, characterized by an imbalance of microorganisms, is linked to numerous medical conditions, including gastrointestinal disorders, cardiovascular diseases, and autoimmune disorders. This imbalance promotes the proliferation of toxin-producing bacteria, disrupts the host’s equilibrium, and initiates inflammation. Genetic factors, dietary choices, and drug use can modify the gut microbiota. However, there is optimism. Several therapeutic approaches, such as probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, postbiotics, microbe-derived products, and microbial substrates, aim to alter the microbiome. This review thoroughly explores the therapeutic potential of these microbiota modulators, analysing recent studies to evaluate their efficacy and limitations. It underscores the promise of microbiota-based therapies for treating dysbiosis-related conditions. This article aims to ensure practitioners feel well-informed and up to date on the most influential methods in this evolving field by providing a comprehensive review of current research.

Genetic and environmental factors are underlying causes of obesity and other metabolic diseases, so it is therefore difficult to find suitable and effective medical treatments. However, without a doubt, the gut microbiota—and also the bacteria present in the oral cavity—act as key factors in the development of these pathologies, yet the mechanisms have not been fully described. Certainly, a more detailed knowledge of the structure of the microbiota—composition, intra- and inter-species relationships, metabolic functions—could be of great help in counteracting the onset of obesity. Identifying key bacterial species will allow us to create a database of “healthy” bacteria, making it possible to manipulate the bacterial community according to metabolic and clinical needs. Targeting gut microbiota in clinical care as treatment for obesity and health-related complications—even just for weight loss has become a real possibility. In this topical review we provide an overview of the role of the microbiota on host energy homeostasis and obesity-related metabolic diseases, therefore addressing the therapeutic potential of novel and existing strategies (impact of nutrition/dietary modulation, and fecal microbiota transplantation) in the treatment of metabolic disease.

is among the most abundant bacterial genera in the healthy human colon, comprising approximately 10-15% of the total gut microbiota. Species within this genus ferment complex carbohydrates, including pectin, to produce butyrate, a short-chain fatty acid with anti-inflammatory and anti-carcinogenic properties. Butyrate is the primary energy source for colonocytes and in is synthesized via the butyryl-CoA:acetate CoA transferase pathway. Reduced levels of are often associated with increased abundance of and may be linked to early-onset colorectal cancer. Here, genomic analysis of strains revealed that several lack antibiotic resistance genes, suggesting a favorable safety profile. Additional genome mining revealed multiple biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) involved in the synthesis of secondary metabolites, including ranthipeptides, which may exhibit antimicrobial activity. Understanding the functional roles of these BGCs, particularly their potential to inhibit , is critical for advancing microbiome-based therapies. Moreover, developing effective delivery strategies to maintain populations in the colon is essential for promoting gut health and preventing disease.

Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), the primary metabolites produced by the microbial fermentation of dietary fibers in the gut, have a key role in protecting gut health. Increasing evidence indicates SCFAs can exert effects on distant tissues and organs beyond the gut via blood circulation. Osteoarthritis (OA) is a chronic inflammatory joint disease that severely diminishes the physical function and quality of life. However, effective clinical treatments for OA remain elusive. Recent studies have shown that SCFAs can exert beneficial effects on damaged joints in OA. SCFAs can mitigate OA progression by preserving intestinal barrier function and maintaining the integrity of cartilage and subchondral bone, suggesting that they have substantial potential to be the adjunctive treatment strategy for OA. This review described the SCFAs in the human body and their cellular signaling mechanism, and summarized the multiple effects of SCFAs (especially butyrate, propionate, and acetate) on the prevention and treatment of OA by regulating the gut-joint axis, providing novel insights into their promising clinical applications.

Functional foods have gained increasing attention for their dual role in providing essential nutrition and promoting health through the presence of bioactive compounds. These compounds, naturally found in a variety of plant and animal sources, include polyphenols, carotenoids, omega‐3 fatty acids, probiotics, prebiotics, alkaloids, and terpenoids. They exhibit a wide range of therapeutic effects, mediated through mechanisms such as antioxidant activity, anti‐inflammatory responses, modulation of gut microbiota, and enzyme inhibition. This review offers a comprehensive classification of these key bioactive compounds, detailing their natural origins with an emphasis on their mechanisms of action. Additionally, it explores their incorporation into diverse functional food matrices, including fortified beverages, dairy products, snack items, and dietary supplements. Modern biotechnological and AI‐driven approaches have revolutionized the precision, efficacy, and characterization of functional food products by enabling high‐throughput screening of bioactive compounds, predictive modeling for formulation, and large‐scale data mining to identify novel ingredient interactions and health correlations. Despite the growing popularity of functional foods, challenges persist in terms of the stability and bioavailability of bioactive compounds, regulatory hurdles, and consumer acceptance. Addressing these issues is critical to ensuring the efficacy and safety of functional food products. The review also highlights future perspectives in the field, emphasizing the need for innovative delivery systems and multidisciplinary research to enhance the bioavailability, functionality, and accessibility of these products. By highlighting the challenges and proposing possible solutions, this review serves as a foundational reference for bridging the gap among researchers, healthcare professionals, and stakeholders. Functional foods enriched with bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, carotenoids, omega‐3 fatty acids, and probiotics provide therapeutic benefits through antioxidant, anti‐inflammatory, and gut‐modulating mechanisms. Advances in biotechnology and AI have improved screening, formulation, and delivery of these compounds in diverse food matrices including dairy, beverages, and supplements. Despite challenges in stability, bioavailability, and regulation, innovative strategies and multidisciplinary research offer promising solutions to enhance efficacy, safety, and consumer acceptance of functional foods.