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Although most studies of factors contributing to successful establishment and spread of non-native species have focused on species traits and characteristics (both biotic and abiotic), increasing empirical and statistical evidence implicates propagule pressure—propagule sizes, propagule numbers, and temporal and spatial patterns of propagule arrival—as important in both facets of invasion. Increasing propagule size enhances establishment probability primarily by lessening effects of demographic stochasticity, whereas propagule number acts primarily by diminishing impacts of environmental stochasticity. A continuing rain of propagules, particularly from a variety of sources, may erase or vitiate the expected genetic bottleneck for invasions initiated by few individuals (as most are), thereby enhancing likelihood of survival. For a few species, recent molecular evidence suggests ongoing propagule pressure aids an invasion to spread by introducing genetic variation adaptive for new areas and habitats. This phenomenon may also explain some time lags between establishment of a non-native species and its spread to become an invasive pest.

Trichoderma spp. are a genus of well-known fungi that promote healthy growth and modulate different functions in plants, as well as protect against various plant pathogens. The application of Trichoderma and its propagules as a biological control method can therefore help to reduce the use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers in agriculture. This review critically discusses and analyzes groundbreaking innovations over the past few decades of biotechnological approaches to prepare active formulations containing Trichoderma. The use of various carrier substances is covered, emphasizing their effects on enhancing the shelf life, viability, and efficacy of the final product formulation. Furthermore, the use of processing techniques such as freeze drying, fluidized bed drying, and spray drying are highlighted, enabling the development of stable, light-weight formulations. Finally, promising microencapsulation techniques for maximizing the performance of Trichoderma spp. during application processes are discussed, leading to the next-generation of multi-functional biological control formulations.Key points• The development of carrier substances to encapsulate Trichoderma propagules is highlighted.• Advances in biotechnological processes to prepare Trichoderma-containing formulations are critically discussed.• Current challenges and future outlook of Trichoderma-based formulations in the context of biological control are presented.

Pinellia ternata , a common medicinal plant in East Asia, holds significant economic and therapeutic values. However, the market industrialization of the P. ternata is retarded due to the lack of a further understanding of its cultivation patterns. Here, we report an efficient cultivation model for P. ternata . This study featured a design with four planting depths (5 cm, 10 cm, 15 cm, and 20 cm) and five types of propagation materials, forming 20 distinct experimental groups. Each group was replicated three times. This study thoroughly analyzed the specific impacts of two types and five different sizes of propagules, as well as four different planting depths, on the propagation coefficient, agronomic traits, yield, and quality of P. ternata . (1) Tubers outperformed bulbils in propagation coefficient, agronomic traits, yield, and quality, with larger propagules showing better performance than smaller ones. (2) Small-diameter propagules (≤ 1.6 cm) achieved the best propagation coefficient, yield, and quality at a planting depth of 5 cm. (3) Large-diameter propagules (1.6–2.0 cm) showed maximum yield and quality component accumulation at 10 cm. (4) Correlation analysis indicated propagation coefficient, yield, and quality were negatively correlated with planting depth but positively correlated with propagule size. In conclusion, this study provides important theoretical support for the cultivation model of P. ternata and is helpful to guide its industrial production.

Weeds can cause losses in soybean crops of up to 80%. Weed propagules influence weed population and diversity in the soil. This research aims to obtain the diversity and population of weed propagules in soybean fields with various soil depths. This research was conducted using surveys and interviews in soybean fields in Dlingo District, Bantul Regency, Special Region of Yogyakarta. The survey method was carried out by taking samples of weeds and soil in three plots of soybean land with a depth of 0 cm, 10 cm, 20 cm, and 30 cm using quadrats in three observation plots measuring 30 cm × 30 cm as well as an interview method to find out how soybean cultivation is carried out. Weed samples and soil samples were collected three weeks after planting (vegetative phase), six weeks after planting (flowering), nine weeks after planting (pod formation), and 11 weeks after planting (ripe pods), so there were 36 sample points in one shot in one phase. The results showed that weed propagules in soybean fields at a 0-10 cm soil depth had higher diversity than at a 20-30 cm soil depth. The weeds that dominate soybean plantations are Portulaca oleracea, Euphorbia prostrata, Oldenlandia corymbosa , and Cleome rutidosperma . Soil depth influences the population of weed propagules in soybean plantations. A soil depth of 0 cm has the highest population of weed propagules, and the population decreases in deeper soil. The results of this research can be used as a reference in determining appropriate methods of controlling weed propagules in soybean fields. The results of this research can be used as a reference in deciding appropriate weed control methods for weed conditions in soybean fields

Increasing studies have shown the importance of intraspecific trait variation (ITV) on ecological processes. However, the patterns and sources of ITV are still unclear, especially in the propagules of coastal vegetation. Here, we measured six hypocotyl traits for 66 genealogies of Kandelia obovata from 26 sites and analyzed how ITV in these traits was distributed across geography and genealogy through variance partitioning. We further constructed mixed models and structural equation models to disentangle the effects of climatic, oceanic, and maternal factors on ITV. Results showed that size‐related traits decreased along increasing latitudinal gradients, which was mainly driven by positive regulation of temperature on these traits. By contrast, ITV of shape trait was unstructured along latitudinal gradients and did not show any dependence among environmental variables. These findings indicate that propagule size mainly varied between populations, whereas propagule shape mainly varied between individuals. Our study may provide useful insights into the ITV in propagule from different functional dimensions and on a broad scale, which may facilitate mangrove protection in light of ITV. Size‐related traits decreased along increasing latitudinal gradients, which was mainly driven by positive regulation of temperature on these traits. By contrast, intraspecific variation in shape trait was unstructured along latitudinal gradients and did not show any dependence of environmental variables. These findings indicate that propagule size mainly varied between populations, whereas propagule shape mainly varied between individuals.

Abstract The atmosphere connects habitats across multiple spatial scales via airborne dispersal of microbial cells, propagules and biomolecules. Atmospheric microorganisms have been implicated in a variety of biochemical and biophysical transformations. Here, we review ecological aspects of airborne microorganisms with respect to their dispersal, activity and contribution to climatic processes. Latest studies utilizing metagenomic approaches demonstrate that airborne microbial communities exhibit pronounced biogeography, driven by a combination of biotic and abiotic factors. We quantify distributions and fluxes of microbial cells between surface habitats and the atmosphere and place special emphasis on long-range pathogen dispersal. Recent advances have established that these processes may be relevant for macroecological outcomes in terrestrial and marine habitats. We evaluate the potential biological transformation of atmospheric volatile organic compounds and other substrates by airborne microorganisms and discuss clouds as hotspots of microbial metabolic activity in the atmosphere. Furthermore, we emphasize the role of microorganisms as ice nucleating particles and their relevance for the water cycle via formation of clouds and precipitation. Finally, potential impacts of anthropogenic forcing on the natural atmospheric microbiota via emission of particulate matter, greenhouse gases and microorganisms are discussed. This review identifies ecological drivers of microbial distribution in the atmosphere, evidence for their involvement in biochemical and biophysical transformations, and risks from anthropogenic forcing.

Ecologists have long acknowledged the importance of seed banks; yet, despite the fact that many plants rely on mycorrhizal fungi for survival and growth, the structure of ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungal spore banks remains poorly understood. The primary goal of this study was to assess the geographic structure in pine‐associated ECM fungal spore banks across the North American continent. Soils were collected from 19 plots in forests across North America. Fresh soils were pyrosequenced for fungal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) amplicons. Adjacent soil cores were dried and bioassayed with pine seedlings, and colonized roots were pyrosequenced to detect resistant propagules of ECM fungi. The results showed that ECM spore banks correlated strongly with biogeographic location, but not with the identity of congeneric plant hosts. Minimal community overlap was found between resident ECM fungi vs those in spore banks, and spore bank assemblages were relatively simple and dominated by Rhizopogon, Wilcoxina, Cenococcum, Thelephora, Tuber, Laccaria and Suillus. Similar to plant seed banks, ECM fungal spore banks are, in general, depauperate, and represent a small and rare subset of the mature forest soil fungal community. Yet, they may be extremely important in fungal colonization after large‐scale disturbances such as clear cuts and forest fires.

Plants cover a large fraction of the Earth’s land mass despite most species having limited to no mobility. To transport their propagules, many plants have evolved mechanisms to disperse their seeds using the wind 1 – 4 . A dandelion seed, for example, has a bristly filament structure that decreases its terminal velocity and helps orient the seed as it wafts to the ground 5 . Inspired by this, we demonstrate wind dispersal of battery-free wireless sensing devices. Our millimetre-scale devices weigh 30 milligrams and are designed on a flexible substrate using programmable, off-the-shelf parts to enable scalability and flexibility for various sensing and computing applications. The system is powered using lightweight solar cells and an energy harvesting circuit that is robust to low and variable light conditions, and has a backscatter communication link that enables data transmission. To achieve the wide-area dispersal and upright landing that is necessary for solar power harvesting, we developed dandelion-inspired, thin-film porous structures that achieve a terminal velocity of 0.87 ± 0.02 metres per second and aerodynamic stability with a probability of upright landing of over 95%. Our results in outdoor environments demonstrate that these devices can travel 50–100 metres in gentle to moderate breeze. Finally, in natural systems, variance in individual seed morphology causes some seeds to fall closer and others to travel farther. We adopt a similar approach and show how we can modulate the porosity and diameter of the structures to achieve dispersal variation across devices. A dandelion-inspired wireless solar-powered sensing device weighing 30 milligrams that transmits data through radio backscatter achieves dispersal over a wide area by travelling on the breeze, and successfully lands upright.