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"Prospective memory."
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Dual pathways to prospective remembering
According to the multiprocess framework (McDaniel and Einstein, 2000), the cognitive system can support prospective memory (PM) retrieval through two general pathways. One pathway depends on top-down attentional control processes that maintain activation of the intention and/or monitor the environment for the triggering or target cues that indicate that the intention should be executed. A second pathway depends on (bottom-up) spontaneous retrieval processes, processes that are often triggered by a PM target cue; critically, spontaneous retrieval is assumed not to require monitoring or active maintenance of the intention. Given demand characteristics associated with experimental settings, however, participants are often inclined to monitor, thereby potentially masking discovery of bottom-up spontaneous retrieval processes. In this article, we discuss parameters of laboratory PM paradigms to discourage monitoring and review recent behavioral evidence from such paradigms that implicate spontaneous retrieval in PM. We then re-examine the neuro-imaging evidence from the lens of the multiprocess framework and suggest some critical modifications to existing neuro-cognitive interpretations of the neuro-imaging results. These modifications illuminate possible directions and refinements for further neuro-imaging investigations of PM.
Journal Article
Effects of bilateral repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on prospective memory in patients with schizophrenia: A double‐blind randomized controlled clinical trial
Aims To investigate effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) on the prospective memory (PM) in patients with schizophrenia (SCZ). Methods Fifty of 71 patients completed this double‐blind placebo‐controlled randomized trial and compared with 18 healthy controls' (HCs) PM outcomes. Bilateral 20 Hz rTMS to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex at 90% RMT administered 5 weekdays for 4 weeks for a total of 20 treatments. The Positive and Negative Symptom Scale (PANSS), the Scale for the Assessment of Negative Symptoms (SANS), and PM test were assessed before and after treatment. Results Both Event‐based PM (EBPM) and Time‐based PM (TBPM) scores at baseline were significantly lower in patients with SCZ than that in HCs. After rTMS treatments, the scores of EBPM in patients with SCZ was significantly improved and had no differences from that in HCs, while the scores of TBPM did not improved. The negative symptom scores on PANSS and the scores of almost all subscales and total scores of SANS were significantly improved in both groups. Conclusions Our findings indicated that bilateral high‐frequency rTMS treatment can alleviate EBPM but not TBPM in patients with SCZ, as well as improve the negative symptoms. Significance: Our results provide one therapeutic option for PM in patients with SCZ. This is the first study to investigate the effect of long‐term rTMS on PM impairment in patients with schizophrenia. We observed a positive result with active rTMS on EBPM, but not on TBPM, compared to sham stimulation. Our results provide one therapeutic option for PM in patients with SCZ.
Journal Article
A Meta-Analysis and Critical Review of Prospective Memory in Autism Spectrum Disorder
Prospective memory (PM) is the ability to remember to carry out a planned intention at an appropriate moment in the future. Research on PM in ASD has produced mixed results. We aimed to establish the extent to which two types of PM (event-based/time-based) are impaired in ASD. In part 1, a meta-analysis of all existing studies indicates a large impairment of time-based, but only a small impairment of event-based PM in ASD. In Part 2, a critical review concludes that time-based PM appears diminished in ASD, in line with the meta-analysis, but that caution should be taken when interpreting event-based PM findings, given potential methodological limitations of several studies. Clinical implications and directions for future research are discussed.
Journal Article
“Do not take that medication”: negative prospective memory in Korsakoff’s syndrome
BackgroundWhile prospective memory (i.e., the ability to execute a future plan) has been extensively researched, little is known about negative prospective memory (i.e., the ability to remember not to execute a future plan) in Korsakoff’s syndrome (KS). We thus evaluated both prospective memory and negative prospective memory in KS, as well as the relationship between both types of prospective memory and inhibition.MethodsPatients with KS and control participants were invited to press a button on the keyboard (i.e., prospective memory) or not to press a button when a cue word (e.g., negative prospective memory) was encountered.ResultsThe analysis demonstrated that patients with KS had more prospective memory errors (i.e., forgetting to click the keyboard when the instruction was to do so) than control participants. The analysis also demonstrated that patients with KS had more negative prospective memory errors (i.e., clicking the keyboard when the instruction was not to do so) than control participants. Similar levels of commissions and omissions were observed in patients with KS than in control participants. Interestingly, prospective and negative prospective performances were significantly correlated with performance on an inhibition assessment task.DiscussionOur study demonstrates that KS is characterized by not only difficulty in remembering to execute a future intention but also by difficulty in remembering not to execute a future intention. A decline in negative prospective memory in KS can be associated with difficulty in inhibiting no longer appropriate previously learned intentions.
Journal Article
The effect of emotional target and context on the aftereffects of prospective memory
Although a lot of recent research focuses on the relationship between emotion and prospective memory (PM), fewer studies yet have explored the relationship between emotion and aftereffects of PM. The aftereffects of PM are the phenomenon that an individual repeatedly performs an already completed-PM intention (commission errors), or the completed intention interferes with the ongoing task performance. This study adopted the repeated PM target paradigm and explored the effect of emotional target and context on the aftereffects of PM through two Experiments. Experiment 1 aimed at distinguishing the effect of target valence and arousal on aftereffects of PM. Considering that the effect of PM target might be affected by the valence of ongoing task stimuli (context valence), Experiment 2 was conducted to further explore the effect of target valence, arousal, and context valence on aftereffects of PM based on Experiment 1. The results of the two studies suggest that: (1) the positive, negative, and high arousal PM targets are likely to increase the risk of the aftereffects of PM, (2) the PM target and context from the same valence are likely to yield greater aftereffects of PM, and that (3) context valence is likely to modulate the effect of arousal on aftereffects of PM in different target valence.
Journal Article
Effect of time pressure and cue salience on event-based prospective memory
As a source of stress,
time pressure
could either have a negative impact on individual cognitive activities, or be a source of motivation to promote. Studies show that high time pressure can impair the performance of
event-based prospective memory
(EBPM). However, the effect of different levels of time pressure on EBPM remains unexplored. This study is the first to systematically investigate the effect of time pressure on EBPM performance. In Experiment 1, six different time pressure levels (3,000 ms, 1,810 ms, 1,190 ms, 880 ms, 725 ms, and 570 ms), were set for 174 voluntary participants. The results showed that time pressure had a negative effect on EBPM performance, and that EBPM performance gradually decreased, with the increase of time pressure. Experiment 2 focused on how to improve EBPM performance under time pressure. A mixed experimental design of three time pressures (1,810 ms, 1,190 ms, 725 ms) × two cue salience (salient, non-salient) was used to explore whether salient cues could improve EBPM performance under different time pressure situations. This experiment involved 82 voluntary participants. The results showed that salient cues significantly improved EBPM performance under three time pressure situations. This study suggests that time pressure acts as a hindrance stressor, to negatively affect EBPM performance. Moreover, people can avoid forgetting the EBPM task by improving the salience of the cue under time pressure.
Journal Article
Effect of time stress on event-based prospective memory with several prospective targets
Previous studies have found that time stress detriments event-based prospective memory (EBPM). Currently, there is indirect evidence that time stress may only affect difficult EBPM but not easy EBPM. In addition, in a study on acute stress, we found that different intensities of stress had different effects on EBPM performance. Therefore, our study explores how different levels of time stress affect EBPM performance under different numbers of prospective targets. In our study, 112 college students were randomly assigned to one of four stress conditions. A 4 (time stress: control group, low, medium, and high) × 2 (prospective target: single and multiple) mixed experimental design was used. The results showed that in the single prospective target condition, low and medium levels of time stress did not affect EBPM accuracy compared with the control group, and only high time stress impaired EBPM accuracy. In the multiple prospective targets condition, an increase in time stress resulted in a gradual decrease in EBPM accuracy. Overall, we found no benefit of time stress; low and medium levels of time stress did not affect simple EBPM, and high levels of time stress always impaired EBPM, and validated the conclusion that time stress is an obstructive stressor under complex EBPM. This reveals that in time-stress environments, we should avoid planning complex EBPM events and choose simple EBPM events.
Journal Article
Time-based prospective memory has plasticity in behavior under different monitoring conditions
The practice effect of prospective memory is the phenomenon that the performance of prospective memory can improve through behavior training. There is indirect evidence from existing studies suggesting the existence of the practice effect of time-based prospective memory (TBPM). However, there were signs that the practice effect might be influenced by external time monitoring conditions. Therefore, we first tested whether the practice effect existed under different monitoring conditions. Then, we examined the possible causes of the practice effect with some indicators including the accuracy and reaction time of ongoing task, the number of time monitoring and the time difference. In the present study, one hundred and fifty-four undergraduate students participated in the experiment and were randomly assigned to four experimental levels. The ongoing task was the 1-back task and the prospective memory task was to press 1 key per minute. The control group only needed train the ongoing task, and the experimental group was required to practice both the ongoing task and the TBPM task. The results revealed that the performance of the TBPM task in the experimental group was better than that in the control group under different time monitoring conditions with smaller time difference and superior performance of the ongoing task. The results suggest that the practice effect of TBPM exists steadily, and two reasons contribute to the practice effect: improved effectiveness of time monitoring, and reduced attention demand on the TBPM task.
Journal Article
Task Interference in Prospective Memory: Adopting a Retrieval Mode and Checking for Targets
Embedding a prospective memory task in an ongoing activity can interfere with performance of that ongoing activity. One explanation of this task interference is that it entails (a) adopting a retrieval mode or readiness to encounter the targets that indicate when to perform the intended action and (b) checking the environment for those targets. An experiment using a new method is reported and provides evidence for these processes. On control trials, participants performed just the ongoing activity (a short-term memory task combined with a 4-choice RT task). On experimental trials, a prospective memory task (press the Enter key if certain words appear in the short-term memory task) was embedded in the ongoing activity. Evidence for adopting a retrieval mode came from finding slower RT task performance on control trials when participants had already been instructed about the prospective memory task than when they had not yet been so instructed. Evidence for target checking came from finding slower RT task performance on experimental trials when a target could appear in any one of five locations than in just one location.
Journal Article