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Abstract The ball python, scientifically known as Python regius, is a popular exotic pet due to its beautiful colors and patterns. One of the most famous characteristics of the ball python is the white coloration seen in the blue-eyed leucistic (BEL) variant. This study indicates that the endothelin receptor type B (EDNRB) gene is a candidate gene responsible for the white color and blue eyes characteristic of the BEL. The results from quantitative PCR (qPCR) show an 11.83% difference in the cycle threshold (Ct) values between the wild type and the platinum complex group. This finding suggests that both alleles in the wild type carry normal EDNRB genes, while the platinum complex group shows that one of its alleles possesses a normal EDNRB gene, indicating a heterozygous condition. Notably, there were no qPCR products detected in the BEL, implying that it lacks a normal EDNRB gene. This is the first finding demonstrating that the EDNRB gene is the candidate gene which responsible for the BEL phenotype. Resumo A píton-bola, cientificamente conhecida como Python regius, é um animal de estimação exótico popular devido às suas belas cores e padrões. Uma das características mais famosas da píton-bola é a coloração branca observada na variante leucística de olhos azuis (BEL). Este estudo indica que o gene do receptor de endotelina tipo B (EDNRB) é um gene candidato responsável pela cor branca e pelos olhos azuis característicos da variante BEL. Os resultados da PCR quantitativa (qPCR) mostram uma diferença de 11,83% nos valores do limiar de ciclo (Ct) entre o tipo selvagem e o grupo do complexo de platina. Essa descoberta sugere que ambos os alelos no tipo selvagem carregam genes EDNRB normais, enquanto o grupo do complexo de platina mostra que um de seus alelos possui um gene EDNRB normal, indicando uma condição heterozigótica. Notavelmente, não foram detectados produtos qPCR no BEL, o que implica que lhe falta um gene EDNRB normal. Esta é a primeira descoberta a demonstrar que o gene EDNRB é o gene candidato responsável pelo fenótipo BEL.

Our review of the CITES trade database confirmed that the ball python is the most exported species by Togo; with 1,657,814 live individuals – comprising 60% of all live reptiles – reported by importing countries since 1978 (almost 55,000 annually since 1992). In total, 99% of the ball pythons legally exported from Togo under CITES were intended for commercial use, presumably as exotic pets. Since the turn of the century, wild-sourced snakes exported from Togo have been largely replaced with ranched snakes, to the extent that in the last 10 years 95% of these live exports were recorded using CITES source code “R” with the majority destined for the USA. We found discrepancies in the CITES trade database that suggest ball python exports were consistently underestimated by Togo and that both ranched and wild-sourced ball python annual quotas have been exceeded on multiple occasions including as recently as 2017. Furthermore, our field visits to seven of these “python farms” revealed that they are also involved in the commercial trade in at least 46 other reptile species, including eight that are already involved in formal CITES trade reviews due to concerns regarding their sustainability and legality. Ranching operations in West Africa were once thought to provide a degree of protection for the ball python; however, in light of recent research, there is growing concern that ranching may not confer any significant net conservation benefits. Further scrutiny and research are required to ensure the long-term survival of wild ball python and other reptile species populations in Togo.

The necessity to prevent and manage pain in reptiles is becoming increasingly important, as their use in scientific research and popularity as exotic pets continues to rise. It was hypothesized that feeding behavior would provide an adequate indicator of pain perception in the ball python (Python regius). Normal feeding was defined the previous week, where a dead rodent was struck within 12 sec (n = 10). Eighteen pythons were randomly assigned to one of three treatments: anesthesia only (AO), chemical noxious stimulus (CS; capsaicin injection), or surgical noxious stimulus (SS; surgical incision). The time to strike was recorded 4 hr after the procedure and weekly during the subsequent 3 wk. Delayed feeding was observed in animals in the CS and SS groups, and normal feeding resumed after 1 and 3 wk, respectively. Spontaneous feeding remained uninterrupted for the AO group. These findings demonstrate feeding behavior as a potential model to assess pain in snakes.

Abstract The ball python, also known as Python regius, is a popular exotic pet due to its beautiful colors and patterns, particularly the piebald variety. However, it can be challenging to distinguish between the wild type and heterozygous piebald (het piebald) phenotypes. This study employs PCR and qPCR techniques to differentiate between these two genotypes. The PCR product size for both the wild type and het piebald was 255 bp. However, the intensity of the PCR product from the wild type was twice that of the het piebald, and no PCR product was detected in the piebald individuals. Additionally, the Ct value for the wild type was lower than that of the het piebald. The qPCR analysis revealed a 15.45% difference between the two groups. Therefore, PCR and qPCR effectively distinguish between the wild type and het piebald genotypes of ball pythons. Resumo A píton-bola, também conhecida como Python regius, é um animal de estimação exótico popular devido às suas belas cores e padrões, particularmente a variedade malhada. No entanto, pode ser desafiador distinguir entre os fenótipos selvagem e heterozigoto da píton-bola malhada (het piebald). Este estudo emprega técnicas de PCR e qPCR para diferenciar entre esses dois genótipos. O tamanho do produto de PCR para o tipo selvagem e a píton-bola malhada heterozigota foi de 255 pb. No entanto, a intensidade do produto de PCR do tipo selvagem foi o dobro da da píton-bola malhada heterozigota e nenhum produto de PCR foi detectado nos indivíduos malhados. Além disso, o valor de Ct para o tipo selvagem foi menor do que para a píton-bola malhada heterozigota. A análise de qPCR revelou uma diferença de 15,45% entre os dois grupos. Portanto, PCR e qPCR se distinguem efetivamente entre os genótipos selvagem e heterozigoto da píton-bola malhada.

Color morphs in ball pythons ( Python regius ) provide a unique and largely untapped resource for understanding the genetics of coloration in reptiles. Here we use a community-science approach to investigate the genetics of three color morphs affecting production of the pigment melanin. These morphs—Albino, Lavender Albino, and Ultramel—show a loss of melanin in the skin and eyes, ranging from severe (Albino) to moderate (Lavender Albino) to mild (Ultramel). To identify genetic variants causing each morph, we recruited shed skins of pet ball pythons via social media, extracted DNA from the skins, and searched for putative loss-of-function variants in homologs of genes controlling melanin production in other vertebrates. We report that the Albino morph is associated with missense and non-coding variants in the gene TYR . The Lavender Albino morph is associated with a deletion in the gene OCA2 . The Ultramel morph is associated with a missense variant and a putative deletion in the gene TYRP1 . Our study is one of the first to identify genetic variants associated with color morphs in ball pythons and shows that pet samples recruited from the community can provide a resource for genetic studies in this species.

It has been suggested that social behavior in squamates evolved partly due to increased interaction opportunities at communal dens and/or due to vivipary. Ball pythons are not viviparous, are not known to communally den, and are often assumed to be non-social. However, as ball pythons are highly cryptic, little is actually known about their social behavior. Here, we examine social interactions and their relationship to personality in juvenile ball pythons (Python regius; n = 30) and find evidence, contrary to expectations, that they are highly gregarious. We tested snakes in both an aggregation assay and in individual personality tests. For the aggregation assay, 5 separate mixed-sex groups of 6 snakes were tracked in a large arena for 10 days. For the personality tests, we tested snakes alone for boldness and sociability. We assessed the snakes’ social interaction patterns within and between the group and individual assays. We found that ball pythons spent much of their time in one large aggregate and used a home base to facilitate social interaction. The snakes were less consistent in their behavior during individual testing, resulting in flexible, rather than consistent, behavior across contexts. Social complexity is thought to determine the number and nature of social interactions between conspecifics, which often results in only testing species that exhibit highly visible social behaviors. Our findings demonstrate that such biased sampling, which often ignores cryptic behavior, provides an incomplete picture of the biological and ecological factors that influence social behavior.Significance statementJuvenile ball pythons are surprisingly social. Animal social behavior is usually assessed in species with easily detectable social interactions, which risks missing social behaviors in less visible species. The ecologies of these social species are often then used to inform theories about the origins of social behaviors. For example, in snakes, social behavior is most commonly tested in species that are known to aggregate in dens. We tested social interaction in ball pythons, who have very different ecologies than the denning snakes typically tested for social behavior. We found that ball pythons had large, stable social groups which were facilitated by the use of a home base. These results challenge many assumptions about the causes of sociability in reptiles.

Abstract Python regius or ball pythons are the famous exotic pets because of their beautiful color and pattern. The albino ball python is one type of ball python, but it is very difficult to determine the difference of phenotype between wildtype and heterozygous genotype of albino (het albino). In this study, PCR and qPCR can distinguish between wildtype and het albino. The PCR product size of wildtype and het albino was 415 bp, but the intensity of PCR product of wildtype was more intense than that of het albinos. No PCR amplicon was found in albinos and the Ct value of wildtype was lower than Ct of het albinos. The molecular detection technique, especially PCR and qPCR, can determine the difference between wildtype and het albinos of ball pythons. Resumo Python regius ou pítons-bola são os famosos animais de estimação exóticos por causa de sua bela cor e padrão. A píton-bola albina é um tipo de píton-bola, mas é muito difícil determinar a diferença de fenótipo entre o genótipo selvagem e heterozigoto de albino (albino het). Neste estudo, PCR e qPCR podem distinguir entre albinos selvagens e het. O tamanho do produto de PCR de albinos selvagens e het foi de 415 pb, mas a intensidade do produto de PCR de selvagens foi mais intensa do que a de albinos het. Nenhum amplicon de PCR foi encontrado em albinos e o valor de Ct de selvagens foi menor do que Ct de albinos het. A técnica de detecção molecular, especialmente PCR e qPCR, pode determinar a diferença entre albinos selvagens e het de pítons-bola.

The study of nontraditional model organisms, particularly those exhibiting extreme phenotypes, offers unique insights into adaptive mechanisms of stress response and survival. Snakes, with their remarkable physiological, metabolic, and morphological adaptations, serve as powerful models for investigating these processes. Burmese pythons (Python bivittatus) have been used as a model for studying the plasticity of extreme physiological systems. The low contiguity of the P. bivittatus genome and rising challenges in obtaining Burmese pythons for study prompted us to sequence, assemble, and annotate the genome of the closely related ball python (Python regius). Using a hybrid sequencing approach, we generated a 1.45-Gb genome assembly with a scaffold N50 greater than 61 Mb and a benchmarking universal single-copy ortholog (BUSCO) score of 98%, representing one of the highest quality genomes to date for a member of the Pythonidae family. This assembly provides a valuable resource for studying snake-specific traits and evolutionary biology. Furthermore, it enables exploration of the molecular mechanisms underlying the remarkable cardiac and muscular adaptations in pythons, such as their ability to rapidly remodel their heart following feeding and resist muscular atrophy during prolonged fasting. These insights have potential applications in human health, particularly in the development of therapies targeting cardiac hypertrophy and muscular atrophy.

The oral microbiota has a diversity of microorganisms that together maintain the homeostasis of the oral cavity. Disruptions in the balance of these microbial populations can lead to the development of oral and dental diseases. To characterize the normal oral microbiota of captive ophidians, samples were obtained from the oral cavity of eight Burmese pythons (Python bivittatus) and 11 royal pythons (Python regius), using oral swab, during routine evaluations. In the Laboratory-Antimicrobials, Biocides and Biofilms Unit at University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, the identification and antimicrobial susceptibility profile was determined using the Vitek® 2 Compact automated device (bioMérieux, Marcy-l’Étoile, France). Of the 106 bacterial isolates obtained, 69% were Gram-negative species and 31% were Gram-positive bacteria. The genus Pseudomonas was the most frequently isolated. Chryseobacterium indologenes, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were the most isolated species. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing revealed that the phenotypic resistance was highest for nitrofurans (47.2%), beta-lactams (45.8%) and sulfonamides (30.6%). Twenty-one multidrug-resistant isolates (58.3%) were identified with Acinetobacter baumannii, Serratia plymuthica, Chryseobacterium indologenes, Providencia rettgeri and Pseudomonas aeruginosa showing the highest resistance frequencies.

Parthenogenesis is an asexual form of reproduction, normally present in various animal and plant species, in which an embryo is generated from a single gamete. Currently, there are some species for which parthenogenesis is supposed but not confirmed, and the mechanisms that activate it are not well understood. A 10-year-old, wild-caught female ball python (Python regius) laid four eggs without any prior contact with a male. The eggs were not incubated and, after 3 days, were submitted to the University of Parma for analysis due to the suspicion of potential embryo presence. Examination of the egg content revealed residual blood vessels and a small red spot, indicative of an early-stage embryo. DNA was extracted from the three deceased embryos and from the mother’s blood, five microsatellites were analyzed to ascertain the origin of the embryos. The captive history data, together with the genetic microsatellite analysis approach, demonstrated the parthenogenetic origin of all three embryos. The embryos were homozygous for each of the maternal microsatellites, suggesting a terminal fusion automixis mode of development.