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In the original publication [...]

The human gut microbiome is a huge microbial community that plays an irreplaceable role in human life. With the further development of research, the influence of intestinal flora on human diseases has been gradually excavated. Gut microbiota (GM) dysbiosis has adverse health effects on the human body that will lead to a variety of chronic diseases. The underlying mechanisms of GM on human diseases are incredibly complicated. This review focuses on the regulation and mechanism of GM on neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular diseases, metabolic diseases and gastrointestinal diseases, thus providing a potential target for the prevention and treatment of disease.

Epidemiological surveys indicate that the incidence of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is increasing rapidly with the continuous growth of the economy. A large number of studies have investigated the relationship between the genetic factors related to the susceptibility to IBD and the gut microbiota of patients by using high-throughput sequencing. IBD is considered the outcome of the interaction between host and microorganisms, including intestinal microbial factors, abnormal immune response, and a damaged intestinal mucosal barrier. The imbalance of microbial homeostasis leads to the colonization and invasion of opportunistic pathogens in the gut, which increases the risk of the host immune response and promotes the development of IBD. It is critical to identify the specific pathogens related to the pathogenesis of IBD. An in-depth understanding of various pathogenic factors is of great significance for the early detection of IBD. This review highlights the role of gut microbiota in the pathogenesis of IBD and provides a theoretical basis for the personalized approaches that modulate the gut microbiota to treat IBD.

Herbal medicinal products have been documented as a significant source for discovering new pharmaceutical molecules that have been used to treat serious diseases. Many plant species have been reported to have pharmacological activities attributable to their phytoconstituents such are glycosides, saponins, flavonoids, steroids, tannins, alkaloids, terpenes, etc. Syzygium aromaticum (clove) is a traditional spice that has been used for food preservation and possesses various pharmacological activities. S. aromaticum is rich in many phytochemicals as follows: sesquiterpenes, monoterpenes, hydrocarbon, and phenolic compounds. Eugenyl acetate, eugenol, and β-caryophyllene are the most significant phytochemicals in clove oil. Pharmacologically, S. aromaticum has been examined toward various pathogenic parasites and microorganisms, including pathogenic bacteria, Plasmodium, Babesia, Theileria parasites, Herpes simplex, and hepatitis C viruses. Several reports documented the analgesic, antioxidant, anticancer, antiseptic, anti-depressant, antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antifungal, and antibacterial activity of eugenol against several pathogenic bacteria including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis and S. aureus. Moreover, eugenol was found to protect against CCl4−induced hepatotoxicity and showed a potential lethal efficacy against the multiplication of various parasites including Giardia lamblia, Fasciola gigantica, Haemonchus contortus, and Schistosoma mansoni. This review examines the phytochemical composition and biological activities of clove extracts along with clove essential oil and the main active compound, eugenol, and implicates new findings from gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) analysis.

Skin wounds greatly affect the global healthcare system, creating a substantial burden on the economy and society. Moreover, the situation is exacerbated by low healing rates, which in fact are overestimated in reports. Cutaneous wounds are generally classified into acute and chronic. The immune response plays an important role during acute wound healing. The activation of immune cells and factors initiate the inflammatory process, facilitate wound cleansing and promote subsequent tissue healing. However, dysregulation of the immune system during the wound healing process leads to persistent inflammation and delayed healing, which ultimately result in chronic wounds. The microenvironment of a chronic wound is characterized by high quantities of pro-inflammatory macrophages, overexpression of inflammatory mediators such as TNF-α and IL-1β, increased activity of matrix metalloproteinases and abundance of reactive oxygen species. Moreover, chronic wounds are frequently complicated by bacterial biofilms, which perpetuate the inflammatory phase. Continuous inflammation and microbial biofilms make it very difficult for the chronic wounds to heal. In this review, we discuss the role of innate and adaptive immunity in the pathogenesis of acute and chronic wounds. Furthermore, we review the latest immunomodulatory therapeutic strategies, including modifying macrophage phenotype, regulating miRNA expression and targeting pro- and anti-inflammatory factors to improve wound healing.