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Quinoa, in addition to its nutritional benefits, is adaptable to, and tolerant of, high-altitude and Mediterranean environmental conditions. However, its largely cross-compatible free-living ancestor, pitseed goosefoot, possesses expansive adaptive variation as its ecotypes are found on arid or well-drained soils throughout temperate and subtropical North America. In this context, the objective of this study was to characterize F7:10 lines from quinoa × pitseed goosefoot hybrids to identify promising lines with desirable agronomic traits and adaptation to hyper-arid production environments. The agro-morphological characterization of 14 interspecific experimental lines plus wild parents (5), checks (3, including one derived from a much earlier wide cross), and an F2 population was performed for 25 quantitative and 26 qualitative descriptors, along with calculation of the selection index. Among the morphological variables, the average number of primary branches per plant (NPB) was six (CV = 78%), the average plant height (PH) was 143.5 cm (CV = 40%), and the average panicle diameter (PDI) was 17.9 cm (CV = 62%). With regard to the yield component variables, the average harvest index (HI) was 39% (CV = 36%), the average weight of 1000 grains (W1000G) was 2.59 g (CV = 42%), and the average yield per hectare (HYP) was 4.68 t ha[sup.−1] (CV = 65%). Regarding the correlations between variables, it was observed that all phenological phases showed positive correlations with plant height (PH) and negative correlations with yield components, specifically with DG, DT, HI, and W1000G. The highest-yielding lines were GR10 (8.16 t ha[sup.−1]), GR07 (7.53 t ha[sup.−1]), GR11 (7.27 t ha[sup.−1]), and GR01 (7.02 t ha[sup.−1]). Multivariate and cluster analyses identified four groups of lines, with groups II and IV standing out for their desirable agronomic traits. However, based on the selection index, lines RL08, RL07, ER06, GR03, and GR11 were identified as the most promising. In terms of quality, 18 out of the 23 lines were classified as sweet (<0.11% saponin) and 5 as bitter (>0.11 saponin). In conclusion, the selection index identified pitseed goosefoot cross-derived quinoa lines having superior yield potential, short plant height, large grain size, early maturity, and low saponin content.

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Chenopodium quinoa is a halophytic pseudocereal crop that is being cultivated in an ever-growing number of countries. Because quinoa is highly resistant to multiple abiotic stresses and its seed has a better nutritional value than any other major cereals, it is regarded as a future crop to ensure global food security. We generated a high-qual- ity genome draft using an inbred line of the quinoa cultivar Real. The quinoa genome experienced one recent genome duplication about 4.3 million years ago, likely reflecting the genome fusion of two Chenopodium parents, in addition to the y paleohexaploidization reported for most eudicots. The genome is highly repetitive （64.5% repeat content） and contains 54 438 protein-coding genes and 192 microRNA genes, with more than 99.3% having orthologons genes from glycophylic species. Stress tolerance in quinoa is associated with the expansion of genes involved in ion and nu- trient transport, ABA homeostasis and signaling, and enhanced basal-level ABA responses. Epidermal salt bladder ceils exhibit similar characteristics as trichomes, with a significantly higher expression of genes related to energy import and ABA biosynthesis compared with the leaf lamina. The quinoa genome sequence provides insights into its exceptional nutritional value and the evolution of halophytes, enabling the identification of genes involved in salinity tolerance, and providing the basis for molecular breeding in quinoa.

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) was known as the “golden grain” by the native Andean people in South America, and has been a source of valuable food over thousands of years. It can produce a variety of secondary metabolites with broad spectra of bioactivities. At least 193 secondary metabolites from quinoa have been identified in the past 40 years. They mainly include phenolic acids, flavonoids, terpenoids, steroids, and nitrogen-containing compounds. These metabolites exhibit many physiological functions, such as insecticidal, molluscicidal and antimicrobial activities, as well as various kinds of biological activities such as antioxidant, cytotoxic, anti-diabetic and anti-inflammatory properties. This review focuses on our knowledge of the structures, biological activities and functions of quinoa secondary metabolites. Biosynthesis, development and utilization of the secondary metabolites especially from quinoa bran were prospected.

Background Chenopodium quinoa Willd., a halophytic crop, shows great variability among different genotypes in response to salt. To investigate the salinity tolerance mechanisms, five contrasting quinoa cultivars belonging to highland ecotype were compared for their seed germination (under 0, 100 and 400 mM NaCl) and seedling’s responses under five salinity levels (0, 100, 200, 300 and 400 mM NaCl). Results Substantial variations were found in plant size (biomass) and overall salinity tolerance (plant biomass in salt treatment as % of control) among the different quinoa cultivars. Plant salinity tolerance was negatively associated with plant size, especially at lower salinity levels (< 300 mM NaCl), but salt tolerance between seed germination and seedling growth was not closely correlated. Except for shoot/root ratio, all measured plant traits responded to salt in a genotype-specific way. Salt stress resulted in decreased plant height, leaf area, root length, and root/shoot ratio in each cultivar. With increasing salinity levels, leaf superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and lipid peroxidation generally increased, but catalase (CAT) and peroxidase (POD) activities showed non-linear patterns. Organic solutes (soluble sugar, proline and protein) accumulated in leaves, whereas inorganic ion (Na + and K + ) increased but K + /Na + decreased in both leaves and roots. Across different salinity levels and cultivars, without close relationships with antioxidant enzyme activities (SOD, POD, or CAT), salinity tolerance was significantly negatively correlated with organic solute and malondialdehyde contents in leaves and inorganic ion contents in leaves or roots (except for root K + content), but positively correlated with K + /Na + ratio in leaves or roots. Conclusion Our results indicate that leaf osmoregulation, K + retention, Na + exclusion, and ion homeostasis are the main physiological mechanisms conferring salinity tolerance of these cultivars, rather than the regulations of leaf antioxidative ability. As an index of salinity tolerance, K + /Na + ratio in leaves or roots can be used for the selective breeding of highland quinoa cultivars.

Background Pre-harvest sprouting (PHS) significantly reduces the yield and quality of Chenopodium quinoa (quinoa). A key determinant of PHS resistance is the balance between seed dormancy and germination, a process primarily regulated by phytohormones. Results To elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying hormone-mediated germination regulation, we performed transcriptome sequencing on Jingli 1 quinoa seeds 6 h after treatment with six phytohormones: abscisic acid (ABA), indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), jasmonic acid (JA), gibberellic acid (GA₃), brassinolide (BR), and 6-benzylaminopurine (6-BA). The results showed that ABA, IAA, and JA significantly inhibited germination, with a maximum inhibition rate of 36.73%. In contrast, optimal concentrations of GA₃ (45 µM), BR (20 µM), and 6-BA (4.44 µM) promoted germination, with a maximum promotion rate of 22.67%. Transcriptome analysis identified 4,738 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), which were significantly enriched in pathways such as plant hormone signal transduction, starch and sucrose metabolism, and terpenoid backbone biosynthesis. Furthermore, we identified 102 coregulated DEGs, revealing intricate hormone signaling networks (such as ABA-GA-JA and JA-IAA-6-BA). Importantly, we pinpointed 20 core regulatory genes (including CqWRKY33 , CqAnxD3 , CqbHLH18L , CqMYB-V , CqSES , CqHMGCS , CqMVK1/2 , CqCKX7-1/-2 , CqWAT1-1/-2 , CqORR9/10 , CqBNM2AL , CqSAUR72L , CqRAV1L , CqABCG31L , Cq2-ODD , and CqBG7Sg2 ) that showed antagonistic expression patterns in response to promotive versus inhibitory hormones. Conclusions This study systematically elucidates the multi-hormone regulatory network underlying quinoa seed germination, thereby enhancing our understanding of phytohormone-mediated regulatory mechanisms in quinoa. It also identifies promising candidate genes for breeding pre-harvest sprouting (PHS)-resistant quinoa varieties.

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is native to the Andean region and has attracted a global growing interest due its unique nutritional value. The protein content of quinoa grains is higher than other cereals while it has better distribution of essential amino acids. It can be used as an alternative to milk proteins. Additionally, quinoa contains a high amount of essential fatty acids, minerals, vitamins, dietary fibers, and carbohydrates with beneficial hypoglycemic effects while being gluten-free. Furthermore, the quinoa plant is resistant to cold, salt, and drought, which leaves no doubt as to why it has been called the “golden grain”. On that account, production of quinoa and its products followed an increasing trend that gained attraction in 2013, as it was proclaimed to be the international year of quinoa. In this respect, this review provides an overview of the published results regarding the nutritional and biological properties of quinoa that have been cultivated in different parts of the world during the last two decades. This review sheds light on how traditional quinoa processing and products evolved and are being adopted into novel food processing and modern food products, as well as noting the potential of side stream processing of quinoa by-products in various industrial sectors. Furthermore, this review moves beyond the technological aspects of quinoa production by addressing the socio-economic and environmental challenges of its production, consumption, and marketizations to reflect a holistic view of promoting the production and consumption of quinoa.

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