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Conflict and cooperation within and between the sexes are among the driving forces that lead to the evolution of mating systems. Among mating strategies, female genetic polyandry and male reproductive cooperation pose challenging evolutionary questions regarding the maintenance of systems where one sex suffers from reduced fitness. Here, we investigate the consequences of social and genetic polyandry for reproductive success of females and males in a population of the dunnock, Prunella modularis. We show that female multiple mating ameliorates the negative effects of inbreeding. We, however, found little evidence that females engage in extra‐group (pair) mating with less related or more heterozygous males. Breeding in socially polyandrous groups reduced the amount of paternity lost to extra‐group males, such that, on average, cobreeding and monogamous males fledged a similar number of young. Importantly, c. 30% of cobreeding male dyads were related, suggesting they could gain indirect fitness benefits. Taken together, cobreeding males achieve equivalent reproductive success to monogamous counterparts under most circumstances. Our study has revealed unexpected complexities in the variable mating system of dunnocks in New Zealand. Our results differ from the well‐known Cambridge dunnock study and can help our understanding of the evolution and maintenance of various breeding systems in the animal kingdom.

Burying beetles conceal small vertebrate carcasses underground and prepare them for consumption by their young. This review places their complex social behavior in an ecological context that focuses on the evolution of biparental care and communal breeding. Both males and females provide extensive parental care, and the major benefit of male assistance is to help defend the brood and carcass from competitors. As intensity and type of competition vary, so do the effectiveness and duration of male care. In many species, a single brood may be reared on large carcasses by more than one male and/or female. Limited reproductive opportunities, the greater effectiveness of groups in preventing the probability of brood failure (especially that caused by competing flies), and the superabundance of food on large carcasses have contributed to the evolution of this cooperative behavior.

Access to comprehensive sexual and reproductive health (SRH) services remains a challenge worldwide. Describing community pharmacists’ SRH services in countries with different scopes of practice will aid in understanding how pharmacists view their roles and how to support them in providing needed services. A cross-sectional web-based survey was administered to pharmacists working in community pharmacies in Japan, Thailand, and Canada. The survey covered 7 SRH categories: pregnancy tests, ovulation tests, contraception, emergency contraception, sexually transmitted and blood-borne infections, maternal and perinatal health, and general sexual health. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data. A total of 922 eligible responses were included in the analysis (Japan = 534, Thailand = 85, and Canada = 303). Most Thai and Canadian participants reported dispensing hormonal contraceptives (Thailand = 99%, Canada = 98%) and emergency contraceptive pills (Thailand = 98%, Canada = 97%). Most Japanese participants provided patient education on barrier contraceptives for men (56%) and information on the safety of medications in pregnancy (74%) and breastfeeding (76%). The majority of participants expressed interest in additional training and expanding their roles in SRH. Sharing international experiences can guide challenges faced by the evolution of pharmacists’ practice in SRH. Providing pharmacists support could help their readiness for this role.

In the mid-1990s, when the United Nations adopted positions affirming a woman's right to be free from bodily harm and to control her own reproductive health, it was both a coup for the international women's rights movement and an instructive moment for nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) seeking to influence UN decision making. Prior to the UN General Assembly's 1993 Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Violence against Women and the 1994 decision by the UN's Conference on Population and Development to vault women's reproductive rights and health to the forefront of its global population growth management program, there was little consensus among governments as to what constituted violence against women and how much control a woman should have over reproduction. Jutta Joachim tells the story of how, in the years leading up to these decisions, women's organizations got savvy-framing the issues strategically, seizing political opportunities in the international environment, and taking advantage of mobilizing structures-and overcame the cultural opposition of many UN-member states to broadly define the two issues and ultimately cement women's rights as an international cause. Joachim's deft examination of the documents, proceedings, and actions of the UN and women's advocacy NGOs-supplemented by interviews with key players from concerned parties, and her own participant-observation-reveals flaws in state-centered international relations theories as applied to UN policy, details the tactics and methods that NGOs can employ in order to push rights issues onto the UN agenda, and offers insights into the factors that affect NGO influence. In so doing,Agenda Setting, the UN, and NGOsdeparts from conventional international relations theory by drawing on social movement literature to illustrate how rights groups can motivate change at the international level.

Identification of female reproductive toxicants is currently based largely on integrated epidemiological and toxicology data and, to a lesser degree, on mechanistic data. A uniform approach to systematically search, organize, integrate, and evaluate mechanistic evidence of female reproductive toxicity from various data types is lacking. We sought to apply a key characteristics approach similar to that pioneered for carcinogen hazard identification to female reproductive toxicant hazard identification. A working group of international experts was convened to discuss mechanisms associated with chemical-induced female reproductive toxicity and identified 10 key characteristics of chemicals that cause female reproductive toxicity: 1) alters hormone receptor signaling; alters reproductive hormone production, secretion, or metabolism; 2) chemical or metabolite is genotoxic; 3) induces epigenetic alterations; 4) causes mitochondrial dysfunction; 5) induces oxidative stress; 6) alters immune function; 7) alters cell signal transduction; 8) alters direct cell–cell interactions; 9) alters survival, proliferation, cell death, or metabolic pathways; and 10) alters microtubules and associated structures. As proof of principle, cyclophosphamide and diethylstilbestrol (DES), for which both human and animal studies have demonstrated female reproductive toxicity, display at least 5 and 3 key characteristics, respectively. 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo- -dioxin (TCDD), for which the epidemiological evidence is mixed, exhibits 5 key characteristics. Future efforts should focus on evaluating the proposed key characteristics against additional known and suspected female reproductive toxicants. Chemicals that exhibit one or more of the key characteristics could be prioritized for additional evaluation and testing. A key characteristics approach has the potential to integrate with pathway-based toxicity testing to improve prediction of female reproductive toxicity in chemicals and potentially prevent some toxicants from entering common use. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP4971.

The fitness consequences of joining a group are highly dependent on ecological context, especially for non-kin. To assess the relationships between cooperation and environment, we examined variation in colony reproductive success for a harvester ant species that nests either solitarily or with multiple, unrelated queens, a social strategy known as primary polygyny. We measured the reproductive investment of colonies of solitary versus social nesting types at two sites, one with primarily single-queen colonies, and the other with a majority of polygynous nests. Our results were consistent with the hypothesis that cooperative nesting by unrelated ant queens is likely a selection response to difficult environments, rather than a strategy to maximize reproduction under favorable conditions. Fewer colonies at the primarily polygynous site reproduced than at the site with primarily single queen nests, and those that did had lower reproductive investment, as measured by number and total mass of reproductives. Assessment of ecological conditions also support the harsh environment hypothesis. Colony density in the multi-queen population was higher, and nearest neighbor distances were lower for non-reproducing than reproducing colonies. To more directly test the hypothesis that colony reproduction was ecologically constrained, we experimentally supplemented food resources for a subset of colonies at the primary polygyny site. Supplemented colonies increased reproductive investment levels to equal that of colonies at the single-queen population, further indicating that environmental pressures are severe where primary polygyny is dominant, and may drive the evolution of non-kin cooperation in this context.

Cooperation between kin and cooperation between non-kin often appear functionally similar, but the evolutionary mechanisms that drive the emergence of these two forms of cooperation can be dramatically different. The mechanisms responsible for non-kin cooperation, in particular, are not well established in an empirical context. To truly understand the emergence of non-kin cooperation, the fitness outcomes of cooperation should be compared with the alternate strategy of solitary living in the same environment. Ant populations that contain a mix of queens who found nests alone (monogyny), and cooperative unrelated ant queens who found nests together and remain together through colony development (primary polygyny), provide a useful natural context to make such a comparison. To estimate the reproductive costs for primary polygyny relative to solitary nest founding, we measured alate (reproductive) production for colonies in a mixed population of polygynous and monogynous California harvester ant colonies over a 2-year period. Colony-level reproductive output was not substantially higher in polygynous colonies compared to those with single queens, and consequent per-queen reproductive gain was significantly lower. Given that polygynous queens in this population are unrelated, nest sharing thus generates a significant annual and potentially lifetime cost for cooperative queens. Comparative measures of colony dynamics, however, suggest that polygynous colonies have a larger or more active workforce than monogynous colonies. Additionally, polygynous colonies may be more conservative than monogynous colonies in resource allocation towards reproduction. These results collectively suggest that primary polygyny generates annual reproductive fitness costs. However, polygynous colonies likely also shift life history strategies in ways that emphasize long-term survival and colony growth over immediate reproduction. Over time, this shift may mitigate the annual fitness costs of cooperation.Significance statementWhen things get difficult, it pays to work together. In some ant species, unrelated queens form long-term cooperative associations that share resources and a workforce within a single nest. The fitness consequences and evolutionary drivers of non-kin cooperation in this and other systems are unclear. We compared the reproductive investment and colony dynamics of single-queen and multi-queen California harvester ant colonies in a shared environment to directly compare the fitness of cooperative and non-cooperative queens. Our data suggest that cooperation not only lowers annual per-queen reproduction, but also produces a more robust colony that may recoup annual fitness losses by extending colony longevity.