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Background Rabbit can produce meat, fur and leather, and serves as an important biomedical animal model. Understanding the microbial community of rabbits helps to raise rabbits healthily and better support their application as animal models. Results In this study, we selected 4 healthy Belgium gray rabbits to collect the microbial samples from 12 body sites, including skin, lung, uterus, mouth, stomach, duodenum, ileum, jejunum, colon, cecum, cecal appendix and rectum. The microbiota across rabbit whole body was investigated via 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. After quality control, 46 samples were retained, and 3,148 qualified ASVs were obtained, representing 23 phyla and 264 genera. Based on the weighted UniFrac distances, these samples were divided into the large intestine (Lin), stomach and small intestine (SSin), uterus (Uter), and skin, mouth and lung (SML) groups. The diversity of Lin microbiota was the highest, followed by those of the SSin, Uter and SML groups. In the whole body, Firmicutes (62.37%), Proteobacteria (13.44%) and Bacteroidota (11.84%) were the most predominant phyla. The relative abundance of Firmicutes in the intestinal tract was significantly higher than that in the non-intestinal site, while Proteobacteria was significantly higher in the non-intestinal site. Among the 264 genera, 35 were the core microbiota distributed in all body sites. Sixty-one genera were specific in the SML group, while 13, 8 and 1 were specifically found in the Lin, SSin and Uter groups, respectively. The Lin group had the most difference with other groups, there were average 72 differential genera between the Lin and other groups. The functional prediction analysis showed that microbial function within each group was similar, but there was a big difference between the intestinal tracts and the non-intestinal group. Notably, the function of microorganism in uterus and mouth were the most different from those in the gastrointestinal sites; rabbit’s coprophagy of consuming soft feces possibly resulted in little differences of microbial function between stomach and large intestinal sites. Conclusion Our findings improve the knowledge about rabbit microbial communities throughout whole body and give insights into the relationship of microbial communities among different body sites in health rabbits.

The One Health concept promotes integrated evaluation of human, animal, and environmental health questions to expedite advances benefiting all species. A recognition of the multi-species impact of mastitis as a painful condition with welfare implications leads us to suggest that mastitis is an ideal target for a One Health approach. In this review, we will evaluate the role of the mammary microenvironment in mastitis in humans, ruminants and rabbits, where appropriate also drawing on studies utilising laboratory animal models. We will examine subclinical mastitis, clinical lactational mastitis, and involution-associated, or dry period, mastitis, highlighting important anatomical and immunological species differences. We will synthesise knowledge gained across different species, comparing and contrasting disease presentation. Subclinical mastitis (SCM) is characterised by elevated Na/K ratio, and increased milk IL-8 concentrations. SCM affecting the breastfeeding mother may result in modulation of infant mucosal immune system development, whilst in ruminants notable milk production losses may ensue. In the case of clinical lactational mastitis, we will focus on mastitis caused by Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. Understanding of the pathogenesis of involution-associated mastitis requires characterization of the structural and molecular changes occurring during involution and we will review these changes across species. We speculate that milk accumulation may act as a nidus for infection, and that the involution ‘wound healing phenotype’ may render the tissue susceptible to bacterial infection. We will discuss the impact of concurrent pregnancy and a ‘parallel pregnancy and involution signature’ during bovine mammary involution.

Pasteurella multocida is incriminated in fowl cholera in poultry and snuffles in rabbits, causing significant economic losses in the poultry industry worldwide. This study investigated the prevalence, kmt 1 gene sequencing, antibiogram, pathogenicity, and PCR detection of the virulence and resistance genes of P. multocida recovered from chickens, ducks, and rabbits. Approximately 150 samples were collected from diseased chickens, ducks, and rabbits (50 for each) from commercial farms in Ismailia government, Egypt. The collected samples were bacteriologically examined, and the recovered isolates were subsequently subjected to kmt 1 gene sequencing, antibiogram, pathogenicity test, and PCR-based detection of virulence and antibiotic resistance genes. The overall prevalence of P. multocida was 20% (30/150). The highest prevalence was recorded in rabbits (24%; 12/50), followed by ducks (20%; 10/50) and chickens (16%; 8/50). The lung was the most predominant infected organ. Moreover, the kmt 1 phylogenetic analysis emphasized that the tested P. multocida strains presented remarkable genetic identity with other P. multocida strains from the USA, Denmark, China, India, and Iran. Chloramphenicol and ciprofloxacin exhibited promising results in treating P. multocida . Moreover, the prevalence of oma 87, ptf A, lux S, tad G, and nan B virulence genes was 100%, 86.7%, 76.6%, 73.3%, and 56.7% respectively. Herein, 13.3% of the tested strains were multidrug-resistant (MDR) to 5 antibiotic classes and carried bla ROB−1 and tet H genes. Besides, 10% of the tested P. multocida strains were extensively drug resistant (XDR) to 7 antibiotic classes and harbored the bla ROB−1 , tet H, and erm X genes. Moreover, 10% of the recovered P. multocida strains were MDR to 5 antibiotic classes and had tet H and erm X genes. Pathogenicity test revealed that the mortality rate was 20% at 1 day post-infection, reaching its highest point (100%) at 2 days post-infection. Briefly, this study highlights the occurrence of MDR and XDR P. multocida in domestic birds and rabbits, revealing a public health threat. The oma 87, ptf A, luxS , and tad G virulence genes and the bla ROB−1 , tet H, and erm X antibiotic resistance genes are usually associated with emerging MDR P . multocida strains.

Rabbit ( Oryctolagus cuniculus ) gastrointestinal stasis syndrome (RGIS) is defined as reduced motility of any part of the digestive tract that can lead to impaction and death if left untreated. This study aimed to describe the effect of RGIS on the fecal microbiota of client-owned pet rabbits. Fecal samples from healthy rabbits and rabbits displaying RGIS were obtained and the symptomology of the rabbits was recorded along with any medical intervention. The health outcomes were as follows: 1) Healthy rabbits (Healthy, n = 21), and 2) Rabbits that displayed symptoms of RGIS, were treated, and recovered (RGIS, n = 22). The fecal samples were analyzed using 16S rRNA and 18S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing to characterize the bacterial and eukaryotic microbial communities, respectively. In the 16S rRNA amplicon dataset, two bacterial genera were found in higher abundance in rabbits with RGIS: Clostridium sensu stricto 1 and an unclassified genus in the Enterobacteriaceae family. Likewise, five genera were found in higher abundance in healthy rabbits. The yeast Cyniclomyces guttulatus dominated the eukaryotic microbiota in all rabbits. RGIS is one of the most common issues in clinical practice. This study is the first to perform detailed characterization of the effects of RGIS on the domestic rabbit’s bacterial and eukaryotic fecal microbiota. The results demonstrate a significant change in the relative abundance of seven bacterial genera associated with RGIS. Future research is necessary to elucidate the potential role of these microorganisms in RGIS. In the long-term, treatments targeting the restoration of the physiological gastrointestinal microbiota should be developed.

Anaplasmosis, caused by infection with bacteria of the genus Anaplasma , is an important veterinary and zoonotic disease. Transmission by ticks has been characterized but little is known about non-tick vectors of livestock anaplasmosis. This study investigated the presence of Anaplasma spp. in camels in northern Kenya and whether the hematophagous camel ked, Hippobosca camelina , acts as a vector. Camels ( n = 976) and > 10,000 keds were sampled over a three-year study period and the presence of Anaplasma species was determined by PCR-based assays targeting the Anaplasmataceae 16S rRNA gene. Camels were infected by a single species of Anaplasma , ‘Candidatus Anaplasma camelii ’ , with infection rates ranging from 63–78% during the dry (September 2017), wet (June-July 2018), and late wet seasons (July-August 2019). 10–29% of camel keds harbored ‘ Ca . Anaplasma camelii’ acquired from infected camels during blood feeding. We determined that Anaplasma -positive camel keds could transmit ‘ Ca . Anaplasma camelii’ to mice and rabbits via blood-feeding. We show competence in pathogen transmission and subsequent infection in mice and rabbits by microscopic observation in blood smears and by PCR. Transmission of ‘ Ca . Anaplasma camelii’ to mice (8–47%) and rabbits (25%) occurred readily after ked bites. Hence, we demonstrate, for the first time, the potential of H . camelina as a vector of anaplasmosis. This key finding provides the rationale for establishing ked control programmes for improvement of livestock and human health.

Tinea faciei caused by zoophilic dermatophytes can simulate several facial inflammatory skin conditions, such as eczema, lupus erythematosus, and cellulitis, often leading to misdiagnosis or a delayed diagnosis. A young girl around primary school age developed inflammatory, favus-like lesions on the face after the purchase of a pet rabbit. The patient had been evaluated at a local clinic where she received treatment with dexamethasone acetate cream topically twice daily for suspected eczema. Mycological examination confirmed that both the patient and her rabbit were affected by tinea corporis, which was caused by Trichophyton mentagrophytes. This case underscores the importance of considering tinea faciei in children presenting with inflammatory facial rashes, especially when there is a history of contact with pets. Moreover, it is crucial to implement protective measures to prevent children from contracting zoonotic dermatophytosis through contact with domestic animals.

Bordetella bronchiseptica is a potential zoonotic pathogen, which mainly causes respiratory diseases in humans and a variety of animal species. B. bronchiseptica is one of the important pathogens isolated from rabbits in Fujian Province. However, the knowledge of the epidemiology and characteristics of the B. bronchiseptica in rabbits in Fujian Province is largely unknown. In this study, 219 B. bronchiseptica isolates recovered from lung samples of dead rabbits with respiratory diseases in Fujian Province were characterised by multi-locus sequencing typing, screening virulence genes and testing antimicrobial susceptibility. The results showed that the 219 isolates were typed into 11 sequence types (STs) including five known STs (ST6, ST10, ST12, ST14 and ST33) and six new STs (ST88, ST89, ST90, ST91, ST92 and ST93) and the ST33 (30.14%, 66/219), ST14 (26.94%, 59/219) and ST12 (16.44%, 36/219) were the three most prevalent STs. Surprisingly, all the 219 isolates carried the five virulence genes (fhaB, prn, cyaA, dnt and bteA) in the polymerase chain reaction screening. Moreover, the isolates were resistant to cefixime, ceftizoxime, cefatriaxone and ampicillin at rates of 33.33%, 31.05%, 11.87% and 3.20%, respectively. This study showed the genetic diversity of B. bronchiseptica in rabbits in Fujian Province, and the colonisation of the human-associated ST12 strain in rabbits in Fujian Province. The results might be useful for monitoring the epidemic strains, developing preventive methods and preventing the transmission of epidemic strains from rabbits to humans.

The transmission of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), particularly the antimicrobial resistance gene in , presents a critical challenge to global public health. Sichuan province is the largest producer and consumer of rabbit meat in China. However, few studies have focused on AMR surveillance in rabbits. Enterobacteriaceae strains were isolated and identified by MALDI-TOF. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was determined according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Whole-genome sequencing was performed using the Illumina and Oxford Nanopore Technologies (ONT) platforms. A total of 73 strains were isolated, including , Salmonella enterica, , and . Resistance rates to tetracycline, ciprofloxacin, nalidixic acid, sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim, and ampicillin exceeded 60%. For isolates showed that ST328, ST22, and ST29 were the primary sequence types, with O178:H7 being the predominant serotype. Remarkably, 48% (35/73) of the isolates carried the gene, and among these, 82.9% (29/35) mcr-1.1-positive isolates contained the IncI2 plasmid replicon. The gene in , and transferred to a recipient strain. Furthermore, the genetic environment of the gene showed that it was flanked by and a relaxase. Comparative analysis indicated that the -positive plasmid exhibited high sequence identity to plasmids from human, porcine, and bovine sources. Notably, a phylogenetic analysis based on core single nucleotide polymorphisms demonstrated that certain rabbit-derived -positive strains clustered within the same evolutionary branch as humanderived strains. These findings indicated that smaller-scale breeding operations, such as rabbit farming, could serve as underrecognized reservoirs of AMR determinants, particularly the gene, thus requiring systematic assessment.

Background Numerous studies indicate that multidrug-resistant Enterococcus bacteria are widely present on the carcasses of various food-producing animal species as well as in facilities used for their production. However, in the global literature, there is no information available regarding the prevalence, species composition or antibiotic resistance of enterococci contaminating rabbit carcasses. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of Enterococcus bacteria on the surface of carcasses of rabbits slaughtered in an EU-approved abattoir with particular emphasis on two species, i.e., Enterococcus faecalis ( E. faecalis ) and Enterococcus faecium ( E. faecium ). In addition, the phenotypic and genotypic resistance to antibiotics of rabbit-origin E. faecalis isolates and the relatedness of multi-drug resistance strains has been evaluated. Results The study revealed that 425 out of 496 examined rabbit carcasses were contaminated with Enterococcus spp., with a prevalence of 85.69% (95% CI: 82.60–88.77%). E. faecalis was confirmed on the surface of 237 carcasses, which constituted 55.8% of the Enterococcus- positive swabs and 47.8% of all carcasses examined. E. faecium was not detected on the surface of any of the rabbit carcasses tested. Phenotypically, 97.5% of isolates were classified as resistant to tetracycline, 92.4% to erythromycin, 65% to kanamycin, 54% to streptomycin, 40.4% to ciprofloxacin, 30% to enrofloxacin, and 0.4% to penicillin and ampicillin. Moreover, 66.40% of E. faecalis isolates showed multidrug resistance to at least three classes of antibiotics. The presence of genes determining the resistance to tetracycline ( tet M and tet L ) , erythromycin ( erm B), aminoglycosides ( aac(6’)-Ie-aph(2”)-Ia ), and streptomycin ( ant(6)-Ia ), was consistent with the phenotypic resistance pattern observed in E. faecalis isolates. Using ADSRRS fingerprinting analysis, four main clusters were visualized, with almost every branch containing multi-drug resistant isolates from rabbits bred on farms in different locations. Conclusion The high prevalence of enterococci on rabbit carcass surfaces indicates poor hygiene during the production process at rabbit abattoirs. Compared to E. faecium , E. faecalis appears better adapted to persist on the surface of rabbit carcasses and/or meat cuts in the slaughterhouse environment. This may be attributed to its stronger biofilm-forming ability, as E. faecalis was the only species detected in all Enterococcus -positive samples tested. Rabbit carcasses are also an important vector of multidrug-resistant E. faecalis . The high genetic similarity of multidrug-resistant E. faecalis isolates from rabbit carcasses raised on different farms suggests a common source of these bacteria or cross-contamination at slaughter. Our results supported E. faecalis as an indicator bacterium for antibiotic resistance under Commission Implementing Decision (EU) 2020/1729 and highlighted the need to extend monitoring to rabbit meat production at the national level.

► Vaccination against Staphylococcus aureus is achieved with toxoids. ► Toxoids are >107 inactivated and stimulate immunity to S. aureus. ► Superantigen toxoids exhibit adjuvant activity dependent on immune co-stimulatory molecule CD40 binding activity. ► Protective neutralizing antibodies are produced in rabbits to toxic shock syndrome toxin-1. Staphylococcus aureus causes significant illnesses throughout the world, including toxic shock syndrome (TSS), pneumonia, and infective endocarditis. Major contributors to S. aureus illnesses are secreted virulence factors it produces, including superantigens and cytolysins. This study investigates the use of superantigens and cytolysins as staphylococcal vaccine candidates. Importantly, 20% of humans and 50% of rabbits in our TSS model cannot generate antibody responses to native superantigens. We generated three TSST-1 mutants; G31S/S32P, H135A, and Q136A. All rabbits administered these TSST-1 toxoids generated strong antibody responses (titers>10,000) that neutralized native TSST-1 in TSS models, both in vitro and in vivo. These TSST-1 mutants lacked detectable residual toxicity. Additionally, the TSST-1 mutants exhibited intrinsic adjuvant activity, increasing antibody responses to a second staphylococcal antigen (β-toxin). This effect may be due to TSST-1 mutants binding to the immune co-stimulatory molecule CD40. The superantigens TSST-1 and SEC and the cytolysin α-toxin are known to contribute to staphylococcal pneumonia. Immunization of rabbits against these secreted toxins provided complete protection from highly lethal challenge with a USA200 S. aureus strain producing all three exotoxins; USA200 strains are common causes of staphylococcal infections. The same three exotoxins plus the cytolysins β-toxin and γ-toxin contribute to infective endocarditis and sepsis caused by USA200 strains. Immunization against these five exotoxins protected rabbits from infective endocarditis and lethal sepsis. These data suggest that immunization against toxoid proteins of S. aureus exotoxins protects from serious illnesses, and concurrently superantigen toxoid mutants provide endogenous adjuvant activity.