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There are sizeable earnings differentials by gender and race in the U.S. labor market, with women earning less than men and most racial/ethnic minority groups earning less than whites. It has been proposed in the previous literature that the effects of gender and race on earnings are additive, so that minority women suffer the full disadvantage of each status. We test this proposition for a broad range of minority groups in the United States. We find that women of all minority groups suffer a smaller gender penalty than white women (relative to same-race men). Exploring the potential role of racial variation in gender role specialization in producing such differentials, we find some empirical evidence suggesting that white families specialize more than families of most other races.

In this systemic investigation of racial differences in the oral microbiome using a large data set, we disclosed the significant differences in the oral microbial richness/evenness, as well as in the overall microbial composition, between African-Americans and European-Americans. We also found multiple oral bacterial taxa, including several preidentified oral pathogens, showing a significant different abundance or prevalence between African-Americans and European-Americans. Furthermore, these taxa were consistently found to be associated with the percentage of genetic African ancestry. Our findings warrant further research to understand how the racial difference in the oral microbiome influences the health disparity. Increasing evidence indicates the significant racial difference in gut, vaginal, and skin microbiomes. However, little is known regarding the racial difference in the oral microbiome. In this study, deep sequencing of 16S rRNA genes was utilized to assess the oral microbiome in mouth rinse samples of 1,058 African-Americans (AAs) and 558 European-Americans (EAs) from the Southern Community Cohort Study. Generally, AAs had a higher species richness than EAs, with P =  5.28 × 10 −14 (Wilcoxon rank sum test) for Faith’s phylogenetic diversity index. A significant difference in overall microbiome composition was observed between AAs and EAs, with P =  5.94 × 10 −4 (MiRKAT) for the weighted UniFrac distance matrix. We also found 32 bacterial taxa showing a significant differential abundance or prevalence between the two racial groups at a Bonferroni-corrected P <  0.05 in linear or logistic regression analyses. Generally, AAs showed a higher abundance of Bacteroidetes and a lower abundance of Actinobacteria and Firmicutes . Interestingly, four periodontal pathogens, Porphyromonas gingivalis , Prevotella intermedia , Treponema denticola , and Filifactor alocis , were more prevalent among AAs than among EAs, with Bonferroni-corrected P values of 5.23 × 10 −6 , 4.47 × 10 −6 , 1.08 × 10 −3 , and 4.49 × 10 −5 , respectively. In addition, all of these 32 taxa were significantly correlated with the percentage of genetic African ancestry. These findings call for research to understand how the racial difference in oral microbiome influences the health disparity. IMPORTANCE In this systemic investigation of racial differences in the oral microbiome using a large data set, we disclosed the significant differences in the oral microbial richness/evenness, as well as in the overall microbial composition, between African-Americans and European-Americans. We also found multiple oral bacterial taxa, including several preidentified oral pathogens, showing a significant different abundance or prevalence between African-Americans and European-Americans. Furthermore, these taxa were consistently found to be associated with the percentage of genetic African ancestry. Our findings warrant further research to understand how the racial difference in the oral microbiome influences the health disparity.

Anecdotal evidence suggests Black caregivers tend to engage in a sociocultural practice called “the Talk,” in which they equip youth with knowledge to facilitate successful navigation of police encounters. Yet, little empirical research exists examining this practice and the factors that may influence the transmission of messages from parents to youth. This study examined the types of messages parents deem important for children to understand about police, whether racial differences exist, and whether parents’ police legitimacy attitudes play a role in perceived importance. Exploratory factor analysis of survey responses from 1,056 parents identified four constructs inherent in The Talk: messages about Police Role, Compliance, Police Behaviors and Safety Behaviors. Using survey data from 948 Black and White parents, multiple regression analyses revealed that parent race was significantly related to the importance parents placed on communicating specific types of messages about the police and that legitimacy attitudes moderated these relationships. Consistent with prior findings of racial differences in legitimacy attitudes, Black parents reported less trust in the police than White parents. Black parents also placed less importance on communicating positive socialization messages about police and greater importance on communicating messages related to compliance, expectations of negative police behaviors, and maintaining personal safety during police encounters. Although legitimacy attitudes significantly moderated the relationship between parent race and message content, Black parents’ legitimacy attitudes were a weaker driver of parents’ messages than White parents’ attitudes, suggesting that additional factors (e.g., expectations of differential treatment) may motivate Black parents’ socialization practices.