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Racial Profiling in Canada
In October 2002, the Toronto Star ran a series of feature articles on racial profiling in which it was indicated that Toronto police routinely target young Black men when making traffic stops. The articles drew strong reactions from the community, and considerable protest from the media, politicians, law enforcement officials, and other public authorities. Although the articles were supported by substantial documentation and statistical evidence, the Toronto Police Association sued the Star, claiming that no such evidence existed. The lawsuit was ultimately rejected in court. As a result, however, the issue of racial profiling - a practice in which certain criminal activities are attributed to individuals or groups on the basis of race or ethno-racial background - was thrust into the national spotlight.
In this comprehensive and thought-provoking work, Carol Tator and Frances Henry explore the meaning of racial profiling in Canada as it is practised not only by the police but also by many other social institutions. The authors provide a theoretical framework within which they examine racial profiling from a number of perspectives and in a variety of situations. They analyse the discourses of the media, policing officials, politicians, civil servants, judges, and other public authorities to demonstrate how those in power communicate and produce existing racialized ideologies and social relations of inequality through their common interactions. Chapter 3, by contributing author Charles Smith, provides a comparison of experiences of racial profiling and policing in Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom. Chapter 7, by Maureen Brown, through a series of interviews, presents stories that demonstrate the realities of racial profiling in the everyday experiences of Afro-Canadians and ethno-racial minorities.
Informed by a wealth of research and theoretical approaches from a wide range of disciplines, Racial Profiling in Canada makes a major contribution to the literature and debates on a topic of growing concern. Together the authors present a compelling examination of the pervasiveness of racial profiling in daily life and its impact on our society, while suggesting directions for change.
eBook
An empirical assessment of pretextual stops and racial profiling
This Article empirically illustrates that legal doctrines permitting police officers to engage in pretextual traffic stops may contribute to an increase in racial profiling. In 1996, the U.S. Supreme Court held in 'Whren v. United States' that pretextual traffic stops do not violate the Fourth Amendment. As long as police officers identify an objective violation of a traffic law, they may lawfully stop a motorist-even if their actual intention is to use the stop to investigate a hunch that by itself does not amount to probable cause or reasonable suspicion.
Scholars and civil rights activists have sharply criticized 'Whren', arguing that it gives police officers permission to engage in racial profiling. But social scientists have struggled to empirically evaluate how 'Whren' has influenced police behavior.
A series of court decisions in the State of Washington presents an opportunity to test the effects of pretextual-stop doctrines on police behavior. In the years since the 'Whren' decision, Washington has experimented with multiple rules that provide differing levels of protection against pretextual stops. In 1999, the Washington Supreme Court held in 'State v. Ladson' that the state constitution barred police from conducting pretextual traffic stops. However, in 2012, the court eased this restriction on pretextual stops in 'State v. Arreola'.
Journal Article
Moral Encroachment
Abstract
This paper develops a precise understanding of the thesis of moral encroachment, which states that the epistemic status of an opinion can depend on its moral features. In addition, I raise objections to existing accounts of moral encroachment. For instance, many accounts fail to give sufficient attention to moral encroachment on credences. Also, many accounts focus on moral features that fail to support standard analogies between pragmatic and moral encroachment. Throughout the paper, I discuss racial profiling as a case study, arguing that moral encroachment can help us identify one respect in which racial profiling is epistemically problematic.
Journal Article
Racialized Workplaces, Contemporary Racial Attitudes, and Stereotype Endorsement
Negative stereotypes are widely assumed to underpin the mistreatment that black Americans sometimes experience while engaging in everyday consumption activities like shopping or dining away from home. However, studies that directly observe the relationship between service providers' endorsement of racial stereotypes and the nature of their interactions with black consumers are rare. In response, this study presents results from a factorial survey experiment designed to assess a theoretically grounded causal process leading service providers to racially profile consumers. In two independent samples of restaurant servers and bartenders we show that consumer racial discrimination in the context of full-service restaurants is a function of servers' endorsement of racial stereotypes depicting blacks as undesirable customers who are dishonest, uncivil, demanding, and bad tippers. Furthermore, we show that servers' endorsement of such stereotypes and their resultant tendencies to discriminate against black diners increases as a function of contemporary anti-black animus and employment in workplaces characterized by explicit expressions of anti-black biases.
Journal Article
Suspect citizens : what 20 million traffic stops tell us about policing and race
\"Suspect Citizens offers the most comprehensive look to date at the most common form of police-citizen interactions, the routine traffic stop. Throughout the war on crime, police agencies have used traffic stops to search drivers suspected of carrying contraband. From the beginning, police agencies made it clear that very large numbers of police stops would have to occur before an officer might interdict a significant drug shipment. Unstated in that calculation was that many Americans would be subjected to police investigations so that a small number of high-level offenders might be found. The key element in this strategy, which kept it hidden from widespread public scrutiny, was that middle-class white Americans were largely exempt from its consequences. Tracking these police practices down to the officer level, Suspect Citizens documents the extreme rarity of drug busts and reveals sustained and troubling disparities in how racial groups are treated\"-- Provided by publisher.
Book
PERCEPTIONS OF RACIAL PROFILING: RACE, CLASS, AND PERSONAL EXPERIENCE
Racial profiling by the police has become an increasingly controversial issue in recent years, but we know little about the extent of the problem and even less about public perceptions of profiling. This article analyzes recent national survey data on citizens' views of racial profiling. We find that both race and personal experience with profiling are strong predictors of attitudes toward profiling and that, among blacks, social class affects views of the prevalence and acceptability of the practice. The findings on social class point to the need for further investigation and explanation of class influences on evaluations of the police.
Journal Article