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"Reaction time"
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Delayed response : the art of waiting from the ancient to the instant world
We have always been conscious of the wait for life-changing messages, whether it be the time it takes to receive a text message from your love, for a soldier's family to learn news from the front, or for a space probe to deliver data from the far reaches of the solar system. In this book in praise of wait times, award-winning author Jason Farman passionately argues that the delay between call and answer has always been an important part of the message. Traveling backward from our current era of Twitter and texts, Farman shows how societies have worked to eliminate waiting in communication and how they have interpreted those times' meanings. Exploring seven eras and objects of waiting--including pneumatic mail tubes in New York, Elizabethan wax seals, and Aboriginal Australian message sticks--Farman offers a new mindset for waiting. In a rebuttal to the demand for instant communication, Farman makes a powerful case for why good things can come to those who wait.
Book
Sequence learning in the human brain: A functional neuroanatomical meta-analysis of serial reaction time studies
Sequence learning underlies numerous motor, cognitive, and social skills. Previous models and empirical investigations of sequence learning in humans and non-human animals have implicated cortico-basal ganglia-cerebellar circuitry as well as other structures. To systematically examine the functional neuroanatomy of sequence learning in humans, we conducted a series of neuroanatomical meta-analyses. We focused on the serial reaction time (SRT) task. This task, which is the most widely used paradigm for probing sequence learning in humans, allows for the rigorous control of visual, motor, and other factors. Controlling for these factors (in sequence-random block contrasts), sequence learning yielded consistent activation only in the basal ganglia, across the striatum (anterior/mid caudate nucleus and putamen) and the globus pallidus. In contrast, when visual, motor, and other factors were not controlled for (in a global analysis with all sequence-baseline contrasts, not just sequence-random contrasts), premotor cortical and cerebellar activation were additionally observed. The study provides solid evidence that, at least as tested with the visuo-motor SRT task, sequence learning in humans relies on the basal ganglia, whereas cerebellar and premotor regions appear to contribute to aspects of the task not related to sequence learning itself. The findings have both basic research and translational implications.
•Using ALE, we synthesized the functional neuroanatomical data on sequence learning.•We focused on the widely used serial reaction time (SRT) task paradigm.•Sequence learning (sequence > random contrast) showed only basal ganglia activation.•This was found in the anterior/mid caudate and putamen, and in the globus pallidus.•Cerebellar/premotor activation was linked to other (visual/motor) SRT task factors.
Journal Article
Validity and reliability of a ruler drop test to measure dual-task reaction time, choice reaction time and discrimination reaction time
Background
The aim of this study was to determine the absolute and relative reliability of the Ruler Drop Test (RDT) for assessing dual-task, choice, and discrimination reaction time. In addition, the construct validity of the RDT is examined in comparison to the Deary-Liewald reaction time (DLRT).
Methods
Tests were administered by the same evaluator, one week apart. Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC3.1) was used to measure relative reliability, and the standard error of measurement (SEM) and minimal detectable change (MDC95) were used to measure absolute reliability. Spearman correlation test was used to measure construct validity.
Results
The results showed that the relative reliability was good for the choice ruler drop (ICC = 0.81), moderate for the dual-task ruler drop test (ICC = 0.70) and discrimination ruler drop test (ICC = 0.72), and good for simple ruler drop test. However, the simple ruler drop test had poor reliability (ICC = 0.57). The RDT shows construct validity compared to the DLRT.
Conclusion
We conclude that the RDT is a suitable instrument for measuring dual-task, choice and discrimination reaction time. Future studies should explore the reliability of these measures in other populations.
Journal Article
Exploring stop signal reaction time over two sessions of the anticipatory response inhibition task
Various behavioural tasks measure response inhibition encompassing the ability to cancel unwanted actions, evaluated via stop signal reaction time (SSRT). It is unclear whether SSRT is an unchangeable inherent measure of inhibitory network integrity or whether it can improve with repetition. The current study explored if and how SSRT changed over two sessions for the Anticipatory Response Inhibition Task (ARIT), and how this compared with the Stop Signal Task (SST). Forty-four participants repeated the ARIT and SST over two sessions. SSRT and its constituent measures (Go trial reaction time, stop signal delay) were calculated. SSRT reflecting non-selective response inhibition was consistent between sessions in the ARIT and SST (both p > 0.293). Reaction time and stop signal delay also remained stable across sessions in the ARIT (all p > 0.063), whereas in the SST, reaction time (p = 0.013) and stop signal delay (p = 0.009) increased. SSRT reflecting behaviourally selective stopping on the ARIT improved (p < 0.001) over two sessions, which was underpinned by changes to reaction time (p < 0.001) and stop signal delay (p < 0.001). Overall, the maximal efficiency of non-selective inhibition remained stable across two sessions in the ARIT. Results of the SST confirmed that non-selective inhibition can, however, be affected by more than inhibitory network integrity. Behaviourally selective stopping on the ARIT changed across sessions, suggesting the sequential neural process captured by the SSRT occurred more quickly in session two. These findings have implications for future studies that necessitate behavioural measures over multiple sessions.
Journal Article
Snapshots into carbon dots formation through a combined spectroscopic approach
The design of novel carbon dots with ad hoc properties requires a comprehensive understanding of their formation mechanism, which is a complex task considering the number of variables involved, such as reaction time, structure of precursors or synthetic protocol employed. Herein, we systematically investigated the formation of carbon nanodots by tracking structural, chemical and photophysical features during the hydrothermal synthesis. We demonstrate that the formation of carbon nanodots consists of 4 consecutive steps: (i) aggregation of small organic molecules, (ii) formation of a dense core with an extended shell, (iii) collapse of the shell and (iv) aromatization of the core. In addition, we provide examples of routes towards tuning the core-shell design, synthesizing five novel carbon dots that all consist of an electron-dense core covered by an amine rich ligand shell.
Studying the formation processes of carbon nanodots remains crucial for understanding their properties and chemical structure. Here, the authors investigate the steps involved in their formation process and provide examples for tuning the core-shell design.
Journal Article
Knowledge by omission: the significance of omissions in the 5-choice serial reaction time task
RationaleThe 5-choice serial reaction time task (5-CSRTT) is commonly used to assess attention in rodents. Manipulation of this task by decreasing the light stimulus duration is often used to probe attentional capacity and causes a decrease in accuracy and an increase in omissions. However, although a decrease in response accuracy is commonly interpreted as a decrease in attention, it is more difficult to interpret an increase in omissions in terms of attentional performance.MethodsHere we present a series of experiments in rats that seeks to investigate the origins of these key behavioral measures of attention in the 5-CSRTT. After an initial training in the 5-CSRTT, rats were tested in a variable stimulus duration procedure to increase task difficulty and probe visual attentional capacity under several specific controlled conditions.ConclusionsWe found that response accuracy reflects visuospatial sustained attentional processing, as commonly interpreted, while response omission reflects rats’ ignorance about the stimulus location, presumably due to failure to pay attention to the curved wall during its presentation. Moreover, when rats lack of relevant information, they choose not to respond instead of responding randomly. Finally, pretreatment with nicotine selectively decreased response omissions, without affecting response accuracy, particularly when the attentional demand was high. Overall, our results indicate that response accuracy and response omission thus correspond to two distinct attentional states.
Journal Article
Immediate and Long-Term Effects of Breathing Exercises on Reaction Time
Background and Objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate the immediate and long-term effects of breathing exercises on simple and choice reaction time. Materials and Methods: A total of 31 participants were included in the study. The participants were randomly divided into two groups. The intervention group (IG; n:16) received 12 sessions of breathing exercises for four weeks (three days a week), while the control group (CG; n:15) received no intervention. Both groups underwent the same assessments at the same times: at baseline, after the first exercise session, and after four weeks/after 12 exercise sessions. Reaction time was assessed using three conditions: choice reaction time (CRT) of the upper limb, auditory reaction time (ART), and visual reaction time (VRT) tests. The first assessment was applied at baseline. The second assessment measured the short-term effect of the breathing exercises after the study group received their first breathing exercise session. The third assessment, to determine the long-term effect, was repeated four weeks after the baseline (A4W) assessment after completing 12 breathing exercises. Results: There was no significant difference between the groups at baseline, immediately, and A4W (p < 0.05) for the VRT, ART, and CRT results with the dominant hand (DH), whereas a group-by-time interaction was found only for the visual reaction time results with the non-dominant hand (nDH) (p > 0.05). Conclusions: The results of this study, which included the evaluation of the immediate and long-term effects of breathing exercises on reaction time, showed an improvement in visual reaction time between the groups over time. In further studies, it is recommended to evaluate the changes and responses in the central nervous system with objective methods to reveal the effect of breathing exercises on reaction time more clearly.
Journal Article
Evaluation of implicit motor learning across body segments in Parkinson’s disease vs. healthy controls
Alterations in motor learning are associated with Parkinson’s disease (PD). Possible body segment-specificity remains unexplored and could have practical implications for testing and rehabilitation. Our aim was to investigate sequence-specific implicit motor learning differences in alternative task movements in people with early stages PD vs. age-matched healthy controls (HCs). Thirty participants with PD (67.6 ± 8.0 yrs, 1.9 ± 0.7 H&Y) and 30 HC (69.6 ± 5.2 yrs) performed three Serial Reaction Time Tasks (SRTTs), which differed for the body segment used to perform it: Hands, Arms, and Feet testing. Visual-motor reaction time was recorded in response to visual stimuli. For each task, eight blocks, each consisting of 4 repetitions of a 12-stimuli sequence, were presented: random sequence order was practiced in block one and eight (R1, R8); a fixed 12-stimuli sequence order was performed in blocks from 2 to 7 (S2-S7). Reaction Times were corrected for errors (RT) and reprocessed as percentage values, where the mean RT of R1 represented 100% (RT
R1
%). RT at R1 (RT
R1
), overall RT (RT
global
) and the magnitude of implicit motor learning (
i
ML, calculated as % difference between R8 and S7) were compared among body segments and PD vs. HCs groups by mixed two-way RM-ANOVA. The learning responses (RT
R1−R8
Curve) and the errors curves were compared among body segments, groups and blocks (R1, R8 and S2-S7) by mixed three-way RM-ANOVA. While PD patients showed the characteristic bradykinesia, our data indicate that they are able to gain an identical sequence-specific implicit motor learning magnitude, with a similar timing, compared to HCs. Moreover, the magnitude and timing of the learning response is consistent across different body segments. This suggests that SRTT, conducted with different body segments, could be considered a valuable tool for studying motor learning in PD and HCs in neurorehabilitation.
Journal Article
Executive Functioning in Highly Talented Soccer Players
Executive functions might be important for successful performance in sports, particularly in team sports requiring quick anticipation and adaptation to continuously changing situations in the field. The executive functions motor inhibition, attention and visuospatial working memory were examined in highly talented soccer players. Eighty-four highly talented youth soccer players (mean age 11.9), and forty-two age-matched amateur soccer players (mean age 11.8) in the age range 8 to 16 years performed a Stop Signal task (motor inhibition), the Attention Network Test (alerting, orienting, and executive attention) and a visuospatial working memory task. The highly talented soccer players followed the talent development program of the youth academy of a professional soccer club and played at the highest national soccer competition for their age. The amateur soccer players played at a regular soccer club in the same geographical region as the highly talented soccer players and play in a regular regional soccer competition. Group differences were tested using analyses of variance. The highly talented group showed superior motor inhibition as measured by stop signal reaction time (SSRT) on the Stop Signal task and a larger alerting effect on the Attention Network Test, indicating an enhanced ability to attain and maintain an alert state. No group differences were found for orienting and executive attention and visuospatial working memory. A logistic regression model with group (highly talented or amateur) as dependent variable and executive function measures that significantly distinguished between groups as predictors showed that these measures differentiated highly talented soccer players from amateur soccer players with 89% accuracy. Highly talented youth soccer players outperform youth amateur players on suppressing ongoing motor responses and on the ability to attain and maintain an alert state; both may be essential for success in soccer.
Journal Article
Atypical Tactile Perception in Early Childhood Autism
We assessed different aspects of tactile perception in young children (3–6 years) with autism. Autistic and neurotypical children completed vibrotactile tasks assessing reaction time, amplitude discrimination (sequential and simultaneous) and temporal discrimination (temporal order judgment and duration discrimination). Autistic children had elevated and more variable reaction times, suggesting slower perceptual-motor processing speed and/or greater distractibility. Children with autism also showed higher amplitude discrimination and temporal order judgement thresholds compared to neurotypical children. Tactile perceptual metrics did not associate with social or tactile sensitivities measured by parent-reports. Altered tactile behavioral responses appear in early childhood, can be quantified but appear dissociated from sensitivity. This implies these measures are complementary, but not necessarily related, phenomena of atypical tactile perception in autism.
Journal Article