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Background A previous study confirmed the existence of the relative age effect (RAE) in the top ten leagues of the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) during the 2016–2017 season, reporting that the effect was particularly pronounced among defenders and midfielders. The present study investigates whether this effect persists. Specifically, it aims to examine the RAE among professional male footballers in UEFA’s top ten leagues during the 2023–2024 season, and to explore how the effect varies by playing position and league. Methods The study analysed the birthdates and playing positions of 5,238 professional footballers. Birthdates were categorised into four quartiles: Q1 (January 1 to March 31), Q2 (April 1 to June 30), Q3 (July 1 to September 30), and Q4 (October 1 to December 31), and were examined in detail by league and position. Results Players born in Q1 (30.3%) were overrepresented compared to those born in Q4 (20.5%) (χ² = 132.470, p  < .05). This difference was statistically significant in most leagues, particularly in Serie A (χ² = 33.535, V = 0.14), Ligue 1 (χ² = 23.741, V = 0.11), LaLiga (χ² = 22.491, V = 0.12), and Bundesliga (χ² = 21.681, V = 0.12), but not in Premier League (χ² = 1.665, p  = .645). In terms of playing position, the RAE was present across all groups ( p  < .05), with the most pronounced effect observed among goalkeepers (χ² = 40.006, V = 0.15). Positional RAE patterns varied across leagues: significant differences were found for goalkeepers in Serie A, Süper Lig, and LaLiga; for defenders in LaLiga and Jupiler Pro League; for midfielders in Serie A, Ligue 1, Süper Lig, and Eredivisie; and for forwards in Ligue 1, Bundesliga, and Scottish Premiership ( p  < .05). Conclusion The findings indicate that the RAE persists in professional football within UEFA’s top leagues. The effect is evident across all playing positions and varies by league context.

Relative age effects (RAEs), where older children within an age-based group have better academic, sporting, self-concept and mental health outcomes than their younger peers, have been demonstrated in multiple countries. Australian research has found self-concept and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder RAEs, but academic RAEs have not been explored. This cross-sectional observational study investigated RAEs among Western Australian year 3, 5, 7 and 9 government school students who took a National Assessment Program - Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) test in Numeracy, Reading, Spelling, or Grammar and Punctuation in 2017. After adjusting for gender and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander status, we found that among the 98% of students who were in their recommended school year, younger students were on average significantly outperformed by their older classmates in all tests. RAEs were strongest in year 3, and progressively weakened through years 5, 7 and 9. These results are consistent with international research. They also support the hypothesis that age-related immaturity of relatively young children disadvantages them in academic competition, but this decreases as the age difference becomes a smaller proportion of their lived years. We also examined the performance of the 2% of children who were outside their recommended year. Accelerated students on average significantly outperformed their older classmates. Delayed progress students performed significantly worse than their younger classmates. A likely explanation for this reverse RAE is that accelerated students are often promoted because they are high academic achievers and delayed children are held back because they are performing below expectations. [Author abstract]

Objective: The purpose of this study was to investigate the presence of relative age effect (RAE) in youth football in Denmark. RAE is a well-established phenomenon in elite sports across the globe and has been heavily investigated in football, often across clubs and countries. Method: To investigate RAE in Denmark, samples were collected from recreational and all levels of youth elite level male football. Chi-squared tests were applied to determine if RAE was present. Results: Results indicate that RAE is present in Danish male recreational football (P = 0.018) and all levels of youth elite football (P ≤ 0.005). Tendencies towards RAE at elite adult level (national team) were found, but results were not significant (P = 0.227). Collectively, this study illustrates the varied impact of RAE on different levels of seniority and competition, highlighting necessity of looking at RAE on different levels to encompass the importance of the phenomenon. Furthermore, the findings of this study indicate that despite of the Scandinavian focus on both mass participation and elite, RAE is still a common phenomenon at all levels of participation.

Objective: To evaluate the growth, maturity status and functional capacity of youth soccer players grouped by level of skill. Subjects: The sample included 69 male players aged 13.2–15.1 years from clubs that competed in the highest division for their age group. Methods: Height and body mass of players were measured and stage of pubic hair (PH) was assessed at clinical examination. Years of experience in football were obtained at interview. Three tests of functional capacity were administered: dash, vertical jump and endurance shuttle run. Performances on six soccer-specific tests were converted to a composite score which was used to classify players into quintiles of skill. Multiple analysis of covariance, controlling for age, was used to test differences among skill groups in experience, growth status and functional capacity, whereas multiple linear regression analysis was used to estimate the relative contributions of age, years of training in soccer, stage of PH, height, body mass, the height×weight interaction and functional capacities to the composite skill score. Results: The skill groups differed significantly in the intermittent endurance run (p<0.05) but not in the other variables. Only the difference between the highest and lowest skill groups in the endurance shuttle run was significant. Most players in the highest (12 of 14) and high (11 of 14) skill groups were in stages PH 4 and PH 5. Pubertal status and height accounted for 21% of the variance in the skill score; adding aerobic resistance to the regression increased the variance in skill accounted for to 29%. In both regressions, the coefficient for height was negative. Conclusion: Adolescent soccer players aged 13–15 years classified by skill do not differ in age, experience, body size, speed and power, but differ in aerobic endurance, specifically at the extremes of skill. Stage of puberty and aerobic resistance (positive coefficients) and height (negative coefficient) are significant predictors of soccer skill (29% of the total explained variance), highlighting the inter-relationship of growth, maturity and functional characteristics of youth soccer players.

Objectives: To examine relative age and birth place effects in hockey players drafted to play in the National Hockey League (NHL) between 2000 and 2005 and determine whether these factors influenced when players were chosen in the draft. Methods: 1013 North American draftees were evaluated from the official NHL website, which provided birthplace, date of birth and selection order in the draft. Population size was collected from Canadian and American census information. Athletes were divided into four quartiles on the basis of selection date to define age cohorts in hockey. Data between the Canadian and American players were also compared to see if the optimal city sizes differed between the two nations. Results: Relative age and birthplace effects were found, although the optimal city size found was dissimilar to that found in previous studies. Further, there were inconsistencies between the Canadian and American data. Conclusion: Contextual factors such as relative age and size of birthplace have a significant effect on likelihood of being selected in the NHL draft.

Students born in earlier months likely have higher academic achievement than those born later even though they are in the same grade (relative age effect, RAE). Some studies reported no RAE in gymnastics. This study aimed to determine the RAE in Korean gymnasts. Data were collected on the birth month of 806 Korean gymnasts: 482 elementary (181 men; 301 women) and 324 middle-high (189 men; 135 women) school gymnasts registered by the Korea Gymnastics Association. Four quarters were used: Q1 (January–March), Q2 (April–June), Q3 (July–September), and Q4 (October–December). The χ2 test and its probability were applied for hypothesis testing. Overall, 164 (20.3%) gymnasts were born in Q1, 191 (23.7%) in Q2, 220 (27.3%) in Q3, and 231 (28.7%) in Q4. We could not confirm the birth frequency of Q1 as high. Descriptive data of RAE showed that the frequency of Q1 was the lowest among the quarters of participants. Contrary to RAE expectations, Q4 showed the highest frequency in both elementary and middle-high (χ2 elementary=2.431, p-value=0.487; χ2 middle high=17.827, p-value=0.001) school gymnasts, and this appeared like an ‘inverted relative age effect’. The inverted RAE was more pronounced in middle and high school gymnasts.