Explore the vast range of titles available.

Shennongjia Rhinopithecus roxellana (SNJ R. roxellana) is the smallest geographical population of R. roxellana. The phylogenetic relationships among its genera and species and the biogeographic processes leading to their current distribution are largely unclear. To address these issues, we resequenced and obtained a new, complete mitochondrial genome of SNJ R. roxellana by next‐generation sequencing and standard Sanger sequencing. We analyzed the gene composition, constructed a phylogenetic tree, inferred the divergence ages based on complete mitochondrial genome sequences, and analyzed the genetic divergence of 13 functional mtDNA genes. The phylogenetic tree and divergence ages showed that R. avunculus (the Tonkin snub‐nosed monkey) was the first to diverge from the Rhinopithecus genus ca. 2.47 million years ago (Ma). Rhinopithecus bieti and Rhinopithecus strykeri formed sister groups, and the second divergence from the Rhinopithecus genus occurred ca. 1.90 Ma. R. roxellana and R. brelichi diverged from the Rhinopithecus genus third, ca. 1.57 Ma. SNJ R. roxellana was the last to diverge within R. roxellana species in 0.08 Ma, and the most recent common ancestor of R. roxellana is 0.10 Ma. The analyses on gene composition showed SNJ R. roxellana was the newest geographic population of R. roxellana. The work will help to develop a more accurate protection policy for SNJ R. roxellana and facilitate further research on selection and adaptation of R. roxellana. The analyses on phylogenetic tree and divergence time showed that SNJ Rhinopithecus roxellana had the least structure and the more recent divergence times of R. roxellana, which indicated more unfavorable environmental factors made SNJ R. roxellana into a newest rapid evolutionary geographic population of R. roxellana.

Background Snub-nosed monkeys are highly endangered primates and their population continues to decline with the habitat fragmentation. Artificial feeding and breeding is an important auxiliary conservation strategy. Studies have shown that changes and imbalances in the gut microbiota often cause gastrointestinal problems in captive snub-nosed monkeys. Here, we compare the gut microbiota composition, diversity, and predicted metabolic function of three endangered species of snub-nosed monkeys ( Rhinopithecus bieti , R. brelichi , and R. roxellana ) under the same captive conditions to further our understanding of the microbiota of these endangered primates and inform captive conservation strategies. 16 S rRNA gene sequencing was performed on fecal samples from 15 individuals ( R. bieti N = 5, R. brelichi N = 5, R. roxellana N = 5). Results The results showed that the three Rhinopithecus species shared 24.70% of their amplicon sequence variants (ASVs), indicating that the composition of the gut microbiota varied among the three Rhinopithecus species. The phyla Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes represented 69.74% and 18.45% of the core microbiota. In particular, analysis of microbiota diversity and predicted metabolic function revealed a profound impact of host species on the gut microbiota. At the genus level, significant enrichment of cellulolytic genera including Rikenellaceae RC9 gut group , Ruminococcus , Christensenellaceae R7 group , UCG 004 from Erysipelatoclostridiaceae, and UCG 002 and UCG 005 from Oscillospiraceae, and carbohydrate metabolism including propionate and butyrate metabolic pathways in the gut of R. bieti indicated that R. bieti potentially has a stronger ability to use plant fibers as energy substances. Bacteroides , unclassified Muribaculaceae , Treponema , and unclassified Eubacterium coprostanoligenes group were significantly enriched in R. brelichi . Prevotella 9 , unclassified Lachnospiraceae , and unclassified UCG 010 from Oscillospirales UCG 010 were significantly enriched in R. roxellana . Among the predicted secondary metabolic pathways, the glycan biosynthesis and metabolism had significantly higher relative abundance in the gut of R. brelichi and R. roxellana than in the gut of R. bieti . The above results suggest that different Rhinopithecus species may have different strategies for carbohydrate metabolism. The Principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) and Unweighted pair-group method with arithmetic mean (UPGMA) clustering tree revealed fewer differences between the gut microbiota of R. brelichi and R. roxellana . Correspondingly, no differences were detected in the relative abundances of functional genes between the two Rhinopithecus species. Conclusion Taken together, the study highlights that host species have an effect on the composition and function of the gut microbiota of snub-nosed monkeys. Therefore, the host species should be considered when developing nutritional strategies and investigating the effects of niche on the gut microbiota of snub-nosed monkeys.

Multilevel societies (MLS), which are characterized by two or more levels of social organization, are among the most complex primate social systems. MLS have only been recorded in a limited number of primates, including humans. The aim of this study was to investigate whether proboscis monkeys (Nasalis larvatus) form MLS in Sabah, Malaysia, and to genetically characterize their dispersal patterns. Association data were obtained through direct observation (35 months) and kinship data through genetic analysis, based on feces collected from ~ 200 individuals. The results strongly suggest that proboscis monkeys exhibit a form of MLS, with several core reproductive units and a bachelor group woven together into a higher-level band. Genetic analysis revealed that the females migrated randomly over short and long distances; however, the males tended to migrate relatively shorter distances than females. Furthermore, male-male dyads showed a slightly higher average relatedness than female-female dyads. Combined with the results of direct observations, we conclude that proboscis monkeys form MLS with at least two layers and a patrilineal basis. Since patrilineal MLS have been identified as an important step in the evolution of human societies, their convergent appearance in proboscis monkeys may help us understand the drivers of human social evolution.Significance statementThe aim of this study was to determine the social organization of proboscis monkeys by direct observation and genetic analysis. The results revealed that their social system exhibited a form of multilevel society with a possible patrilineal basis. Since humans exhibit a similar constellation of social features, proboscis monkeys may offer insightful clues about human social evolution.

Golden snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) live in multilevel societies of over 100 individuals. Despite exploiting low visibility high-altitude forests and home ranges of 14 km2, they maintain large and cohesive social networks that serve to coordinate travel and daily activities effectively. During traveling, foraging, and feeding, golden snub-nosed monkeys communicate using contact or coo calls. These contact calls are conspicuous (70–75 decibels), directional, and function to communicate affiliative intention, identity, and location. Based on social network analyses, we found that golden snub-nosed monkeys exchanged contact calls among individuals within their resident one-male multi-female unit (OMU) and with conspecifics from neighboring OMUs. Within each OMU, there were more frequent call exchanges among more spatially separated members than among closely located individuals. In the case of contact calls between OMUs, there were more frequent contact call exchanges among closely located leader males. These findings demonstrate that contact call exchanges communicate individual identity and location, promote social bonds, and contribute to OMU and inter-OMU coordinated behavior that is essential to a well-functioning multilevel or tiered social network. In addition, given that 34% of all contact call exchanges were initiated by adult males (twice the number given by adult females), male OMU leadership appears to play a critical role in coordinating activities, directing travel, and promoting group cohesion. Moreover, given that higher-ranking males initiated more contact call exchanges than lower-ranking males, higher-ranking males appear to play a more important role in leading and coordinating travel and the fission–fusion dynamics of this multilevel society.Significance statementPrimates living in a large multi-level society face significant challenges in coordinating group movement and promoting social cohesion. We found that golden snub-nosed monkeys use contact coo calls to regulate spatial proximity and social interactions within their resident one-male multi-female unit (OMU) and with neighboring OMUs. Adult males are the primary call-givers. Within OMUs, there were significantly more frequent call exchanges between more spatially separated members. In contrast, between OMUs, there were more frequent contact call exchanges between leader males, especially when they were in close spatial proximity. Contact calls, which are given at an average distance of 5-200 m, communicate information concerning caller identity, location, and intention. Given that more than 90% of contact call exchanges occurred during foraging and traveling, this call type is critical in coordinating activities and regulating fission-fusion dynamics in this large multi-level society.

Collective decision-making is important for coordination and synchronization of the activities among group-living animals and the mechanisms guiding such procedure involve a great variety of characteristics of behavior and motivation. This study provides some evidence investigating collective movement initiation in a multi-level social band of the golden snub-nosed monkeys ( Rhinopithecus roxellana ) located in the Mts. Qinling, China. We collect 1223 datum records relevant to decision initiation from six OMUs. The results indicate that collective movement initiation could be divided into two continual but relatively independent processes: decisions on moving direction and movement implementation. In both processes, adult individuals are more likely to initiate the decision-making, while other adults vote on initiator’s preference, with a threshold, a supporting number required for a success. Thus, voting behavior and quorum fulfillment contribute to a successful decision-making. Adult individuals play important role in making decisions for moving direction and implementation. For a successful collective movement initiation, the individuals being more central in grooming network initiate decisions more frequently than the others, and attract voters more easily. Furthermore, following the initiation, at least four positive voters are required for a direction decision and at least three positive voters are needed for the decision on movement implementation, which could be considered as the threshold of quorum numbers required for a successful decision. This study has provided some very interesting information and scientific evidence in understanding social structure and behaviors of the nonhuman primates with a social structure very similar to humans’. Thus, some results can directly be referred to the comprehension of human social structure and behavior.

经病理剖检并结合临床检查分析, 对1例川金丝猴 (Rhinopithecus roxellana) 死亡病例进行病因分析。结果表明：该病例胰淀粉酶增高；胰脏明显肿大, 为正常3~5倍；胰腺腺体蛋白变性, 间质见大量白细胞浸润, 腺体组织呈灶状坏死；胰腺出血, 切面和周围组织高度出血、坏死, 确诊为急性出血性胰腺炎。根据病例分析结果, 提出急性出血性胰腺炎的治疗和预防方案。

The origin and population history of the endangered golden snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) remain largely unavailable and/or controversial. We here integrate analyses of multiple genomic markers, including mitochondrial (mt) genomes, Y-chromosomes, and autosomes of 54 golden monkey individuals from all three geographic populations (SG, QL, and SNJ). Our results reveal contrasting population structures. Mt analyses suggest a division of golden monkeys into five lineages: one in SNJ, two in SG, and two in QL. One of the SG lineages (a mixed SG/QL lineage) is basal to all other lineages. In contrast, autosomal analyses place SNJ as the most basal lineage and identify one QL and three SG lineages. Notably, Y-chromosome analyses bear features similar to mt analyses in placing the SG/QL-mixed lineage as the first diverging lineage and dividing SG into two lineages, while resembling autosomal analyses in identifying one QL lineage. We further find bidirectional gene flow among all three populations at autosomal loci, while asymmetric gene flow is suggested at mt genomes and Y-chromosomes. We propose that different population structures and gene flow scenarios are the result of sex-linked differences in the dispersal pattern of R. roxellana. Moreover, our demographic simulation analyses support an origin hypothesis suggesting that the ancestral R. roxellana population was once widespread and then divided into SNJ and non-SNJ (SG and QL) populations. This differs from previous mt-based “mono-origin (SG is the source population)” and “multiorigin (SG is a fusion of QL and SNJ)” hypotheses. We provide a detailed and refined scenario for the origin and population history of this endangered primate species, which has a broader significance for Chinese biogeography. In addition, this study highlights the importance to investigate multiple genomic markers with different modes of inheritance to trace the complete evolutionary history of a species, especially for those exhibiting differential or mixed patterns of sex dispersal.

The alarm calls of non-human primates help us to understand the evolution of animal vocal communication and the origin of human language. However, as there is a lack of research on alarm calls in primates living in multilevel societies, we studied these calls in wild Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys. By means of playback experiments, we analyzed whether call receivers understood the meaning of the alarm calls, making appropriate behavioral responses. Results showed that receivers made appropriate and specific anti-predator responses to two types of alarm calls. After hearing the aerial predator alarm call (“GEGEGE”), receivers’ first gaze direction was usually upward (towards the sky), and upward gaze duration was longer than the last gaze before playback. After hearing the terrestrial predator alarm call (“O-GA”), the first gaze direction was usually downward (towards the ground), and this downward gaze duration was longer than the gaze before playback. These reactions provide evidence for external referentiality of alarm calls in Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys, that is, information about the type of predator or the appropriate response is encoded acoustically in the calls.

川金丝猴 (Rhinopithecus roxellana) , 雌性, 15岁, 无既往重大疾病史, 于2018年10月1日出现精神不佳, 食欲下降, 不喜活动的症状, 体温41℃。经抗炎退热治疗无显著好转, 10月3日精神萎靡, 无食欲, 四肢无力, 趴于地面上。当日将其与母猴分离入院治疗。血生化检查显示, 肝功能各项指标严重异常, 丙氨酸氨基转移酶137 U/L, 谷草转氨酶108 U/L, 碱性磷酸酶1329 U/L, 白蛋白4 g/L, 白蛋白球蛋白比值005。肝炎病毒分型检测结果均为阴性。粪常规显示, 毛首线虫属 (Trichocephalus) 虫卵强阳性。血涂片未见血液性寄生虫。根据各项检查结果, 初步诊断为急性实质性肝炎。遵循消炎、保肝护肝、解毒、止泻的原则给药。经14 d的治疗, 该金丝猴精神、食欲、活动和粪便恢复正常, 各项指标趋于正常, 放回馆舍, 与母猴团聚。