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Despite sleepiness being considered one of the main factors contributing to road crashes, and even though extensive efforts have been made in the identification of techniques able to detect it, the assessment of fitness-to-drive regarding driving fatigue and sleepiness is still an open issue. In the literature on driver sleepiness, both vehicle-based measures and behavioral measures are used. Concerning the former, the one considered more reliable is the Standard Deviation of Lateral Position (SDLP) while the PERcent of eye CLOSure over a defined period of time (PERCLOS) seems to be the most informative behavioral measure. In the present study, using a within-subject design, we assessed the effect of a single night of partial sleep deprivation (PSD, less than 5 h sleeping time) compared to a control condition (full night of sleep, 8 h sleeping time) on SDLP and PERCLOS, in young adults driving in a dynamic car simulator. Results show that time-on-task and PSD affect both subjective and objective sleepiness measures. Moreover, our data confirm that both objective and subjective sleepiness increase through a monotonous driving scenario. Considering that SDLP and PERCLOS were often used separately in studies on driver sleepiness and fatigue detection, the present results have potential implications for fitness-to-drive assessment in that they provide useful information allowing to combine the advantages of the two measures for drowsiness detection while driving.

Gerry Fitt was a key political figure in Northern Ireland for over twenty years, yet there is no major historical evaluation of his contribution, nor of his legacy or place in the memory of the minority community there. Fitt played a central role in creating the identity of the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) as a socialist party. Yet, he noted that he was often in an ‘unhappy minority of one’ over many issues and at times the relationship between himself and his party colleagues was ‘very uneasy’. Drawing on unpublished party and private papers, recently released Irish and British government papers, and interviews, this book is the first academic study of the role of Gerry Fitt in the politics of the SDLP and will examine the first decade of the party through the lens of his leadership.

Background The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of alcohol hangover on simulated highway driving performance. Methods Driving performance of forty-two social drinkers was tested the morning following an evening of consuming on average 10.2 (SD = 4.2) alcoholic drinks (alcohol hangover) and on a control day (no alcohol consumed). Subjects performed a standardized 100-km highway driving test in the STISIM driving simulator. In addition to the standard deviation of lateral position (SDLP; i.e., the weaving of the car), lapses of attention were examined. Self-reported driving quality and driving style were scored, as well as mental effort to perform the test, sleepiness before and after driving, and hangover severity. Results Driving performance was significantly impaired during alcohol hangover as expressed by an SDLP increase of +1.9 cm ( t (1,41)  = 2.851, p  = 0.007), increased number of lapses relative to the control day (7.7 versus 5.3 lapses, t (1,41)  = 2.125, p  = 0.019), and an increased total lapse time (182.7 versus 127.3 s, p  = 0.040). During alcohol hangover, subjects reported their driving quality to be significantly poorer ( t (1,41)  = 4.840, p  = 0.001) and less safe ( t (1,41)  = 5.078, p  = 0.001), wise ( t (1,41)  = 4.061, p  = 0.001), predictable ( t (1,41)  = 3.475, p  = 0.001), and responsible ( t (1,41)  = 4.122, p  = 0.001). Subjects further reported being significantly more tense while driving ( t (1,41)  = 3.280, p  = 0.002), and more effort was needed to perform the driving test ( t (1,41)  = 2.941, p  = 0.001). There was a significant interaction with total sleep time and hangover effects on SDLP and the number of lapses. Conclusions In conclusion, driving is significantly impaired during alcohol hangover, as expressed in an elevated SDLP and increased number of lapses. Total sleep time has a significant impact on the magnitude of driving impairment.

This paper derives an effective take-over alarm method for a Society of Automotive Engineers Level 3 automated vehicle using vehicle parameters. An experiment was conducted using a driving simulator. Forty-one subjects participated in two different scenarios: unplanned and planned operational design domain. Subjects drove on a highway at 100 km/h in automated mode. Experiment participants resumed manual control of the vehicle when the alarm was provided in the take-over state. A visual and auditory combined alarm was the most effective in terms of drivers’ cognitive load showing low steering angle deviation and steering reversal rate values compared to the combined visual, auditory, and haptic alarm (p = 0.01 and 0.003). The auditory alarm was the most effective in terms of the quality of the driver’s reaction showing a low maximum acceleration value compared to the combined visual, haptic alarm (p = 0.002). The combined visual, auditory, and haptic alarm was the most effective in terms of post-take-over lateral control showing a low standard deviation lateral position value compared to the haptic alarm (p < 0.001). The auditory and haptic combined alarm was the most effective in terms of post-take-over longitudinal control showing a low number of gas pedal inputs value compared to the haptic alarm (p = 0.002).

Abstract RationaleThe effects of hypnotics on automobile driving have been attracting increasing attention. However, few driving simulators (DSs) have been confirmed to have acceptable reliability and validity for assessing the next-day residual effects of zopiclone as a positive control on driving performance.ObjectiveTo investigate whether a new DS could permit detection of the next-day residual effects of zopiclone on driving performance.MethodsIn this double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled crossover trial, 28 healthy males received zopiclone 7.5 mg at bedtime on days 1 and 8 and placebo on the other days over a period of 16 days. The participants took part in three driving tasks—road-tracking, car-following, and harsh-braking—using a DS on days 2 and 9 at 9-h post-dosing. Scores on the Karolinska Sleepiness Scale and Profile of Mood States-Second Edition were then assessed, as was the serum concentration of zopiclone.ResultsThe estimated differences in the standard deviation of lateral position (cm) in the road-tracking task between the zopiclone and placebo groups on days 2 and 9 were 3.75 cm (90% confidence interval (CI): 1.71–5.79) and 4.07 cm (90% CI: 2.02–6.11), respectively. The estimated differences in the distance coefficient of variation in the car-following task and in the brake reaction time in the harsh-braking task between the zopiclone and placebo groups on day 2 were 4.31 (90% CI: 1.94–6.69) and 24.6 ms (90% CI: 12.7–36.4), respectively.ConclusionsThe DS used in this study has sufficient sensitivity to detect the next-day residual effects of zopiclone on driving performance.

BackgroundStandard deviation of lateral position (SDLP) has been accepted as a reliable parameter for measuring driving impairment due to lowered vigilance caused by sleepiness or the use of sedating drugs. Recently, lane drifts were proposed as an additional outcome measure quantifying momentary lapses of attention. The purpose of this study was to validate lane drifts as outcome measure of driver impairment in a large data pool from two independent research centers.MethodsData from 11 placebo-controlled studies that assessed the impact of alcohol, hypnotics, and sleep deprivation on actual driving performance were pooled. In total, 717 on-the-road tests performed by 315 drivers were subjected to an automated algorithm to detect occurrences of lane drifts. Lane drifts were defined as deviations > 100 cm from the mean (LDmlp) and from the absolute lateral position (LDalp) for 8 s.ResultsThe number of LDmlp was low and did not differ between treatments and baseline, i.e., 14 vs. 3 events, respectively. LDalp were frequent and significantly higher during treatment relative to baseline, i.e., 1646 vs. 470 events. The correlation between LDalp and SDLP in the treatment conditions was very high (rs = 0.77). The frequency of the occurrence of treatment-induced lane drifts however depended on baseline SDLP of drivers, whereas treatment-induced changes in SDLP occurred independent of baseline SDLP.ConclusionLDmlp is not useful as an outcome measure of driver impairment due to its rare occurrence, even when treatment-induced increments in SDLP are evident. Treatment effects on LDalp and SDLP are closely related.

This review discusses the methodology of the standardized on-the-road driving test and standard operation procedures to conduct the test and analyze the data. The on-the-road driving test has proven to be a sensitive and reliable method to examine driving ability after administration of central nervous system (CNS) drugs. The test is performed on a public highway in normal traffic. Subjects are instructed to drive with a steady lateral position and constant speed. Its primary parameter, the standard deviation of lateral position (SDLP), ie, an index of 'weaving', is a stable measure of driving performance with high test-retest reliability. SDLP differences from placebo are dose-dependent, and do not depend on the subject's baseline driving skills (placebo SDLP). It is important that standard operation procedures are applied to conduct the test and analyze the data in order to allow comparisons between studies from different sites.

RationaleAlthough driving simulators (DS) are receiving increasing attention due to concern over traffic accidents under the influences of drugs, few DS are recognized for their reliability and validity. Therefore, the development of an evaluation system using DS for driving performance is urgently needed.ObjectivesTo investigate whether the standard deviation of lateral position (SDLP) increases with blood alcohol concentration (BAC) using a DS with reliability and calculate the SDLP threshold from the difference between BAC levels of 0 and 0.05%.MethodsTwenty healthy Japanese men performed the DS tasks up to 60 min in Study 1 and DS tasks twice at 1-week intervals in Study 2. Twenty-six healthy men conducted the same DS tasks under BAC level (0, 0.025, 0.05, and 0.09%) in double-blind, randomized, crossover trial in Study 3. The primary outcome was SDLP in a road-tracking test. The test–retest reliability of DS data was assessed, and the estimated difference in SDLP between BAC levels of 0 and 0.05% was calculated using a linear regression model.ResultsThe cumulative SDLP values at 5-min intervals were stable, and the intraclass correlation coefficient for its values was 0.93. SDLP increased with BAC in a concentration-dependent manner. The predicted ΔSDLP value for the difference between BAC levels of 0 and 0.05% was 9.23 cm. No participants dropped out because of simulator sickness.ConclusionsThe new DS used in these studies has reliability, validity, and tolerability and is considered suitable for evaluating the influence of drugs on driving performance.

This article examines attitudes across Irish republicanism and nationalism to the 1998 Good Friday Agreement (GFA). The research draws on qualitative interviews conducted between 2009–2018, throughout the nationalist and republican spectrum, charting evolving attitudes across this green base. Interviewees include GFA negotiators, including the SDLP, a key architect of the Agreement, and Sinn Féin, the party that went on to claim ownership of the GFA. Interviews were also conducted with dissident Irish republicans who have never accepted the GFA. This article puts a particular focus on nationalist and republican attitudes to armed actions in pursuit of Irish unity. Further, it examines attitudes across the Irish republican/nationalist spectrum to a potential border-poll, resulting from the central principle of the GFA (consent); and analyses positions on the required 50 % plus one for Irish unity.

Rationale The purpose of this study is to evaluate the single dose effect of intranasal esketamine (84 mg) compared to placebo on on-road driving performance. Mirtazapine (oral, 30 mg) was used as a positive control, as this antidepressant drug is known to negatively affect driving performance. Methods Twenty-six healthy volunteers aged 21 to 60 years were enrolled in this study. In the evening, 8 h after treatment administration, participants conducted the standardized 100-km on-road driving test. Primary outcome measure was the standard deviation of lateral position (SDLP), i.e., the weaving of the car. Mean lateral position, mean speed, and standard deviation of speed were secondary outcome measures. For SDLP, non-inferiority analyses were conducted, using +2.4 cm (relative to placebo) as a predefined non-inferiority margin for clinical relevant impairment. Results Twenty-four participants completed the study. No significant SDLP difference was found between esketamine and placebo ( p  = 0.7638), whereas the SDLP after mirtazapine was significantly higher when compared to placebo ( p  = 0.0001). The upper limit of the two-sided 95% confidence interval (CI) of the mean difference between esketamine and placebo was +0.86 cm, i.e., <+2.4 cm, thus demonstrating that esketamine was non-inferior to placebo. Non-inferiority could not be concluded for mirtazapine (+3.15 cm SDLP relative to placebo). No significant differences in mean speed, standard deviation of speed, and mean lateral position were observed between the active treatments and placebo. Conclusions No significant difference in driving performance was observed 8 h after administering intranasal esketamine (84 mg) or placebo. In contrast, oral mirtazapine (30 mg) significantly impaired on road driving performance.