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"SMELTING"
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History of the manufacture of iron in all ages : and particularly in the United States from colonial times to 1891
A data-rich history of the manufacture and use of iron, from the ancient Egyptian period to late 19th-century America.
Book
Urban mining by flash Joule heating
Precious metal recovery from electronic waste, termed urban mining, is important for a circular economy. Present methods for urban mining, mainly smelting and leaching, suffer from lengthy purification processes and negative environmental impacts. Here, a solvent-free and sustainable process by flash Joule heating is disclosed to recover precious metals and remove hazardous heavy metals in electronic waste within one second. The sample temperature ramps to ~3400 K in milliseconds by the ultrafast electrical thermal process. Such a high temperature enables the evaporative separation of precious metals from the supporting matrices, with the recovery yields >80% for Rh, Pd, Ag, and >60% for Au. The heavy metals in electronic waste, some of which are highly toxic including Cr, As, Cd, Hg, and Pb, are also removed, leaving a final waste with minimal metal content, acceptable even for agriculture soil levels. Urban mining by flash Joule heating would be 80× to 500× less energy consumptive than using traditional smelting furnaces for metal-component recovery and more environmentally friendly.
Precious metals recovery from electronics wastes, termed urban mining, is significant for a circular economy. Here, the authors reported a solvent-free and ultrafast process based on flash Joule heating to recover precious metals and remove toxic heavy metals in electronic wastes.
Journal Article
Research Progress on Heavy Metals Pollution in the Soil of Smelting Sites in China
Contamination by heavy metals is a significant issue worldwide. In recent decades, soil heavy metals pollutants in China had adverse impacts on soil quality and threatened food security and human health. Anthropogenic inputs mainly generate heavy metal contamination in China. In this review, the approaches were used in these investigations, focusing on geochemical strategies and metal isotope methods, particularly useful for determining the pathway of mining and smelting derived pollution in the soil. Our findings indicate that heavy metal distribution substantially impacts topsoils around mining and smelting sites, which release massive amounts of heavy metals into the environment. Furthermore, heavy metal contamination and related hazards posed by Pb, Cd, As, and Hg are more severe to plants, soil organisms, and humans. It’s worth observing that kids are particularly vulnerable to Pb toxicity. And this review also provides novel approaches to control and reduce the impacts of heavy metal pollution. Hydrometallurgy offers a potential method for extracting metals and removing potentially harmful heavy metals from waste to reduce pollution. However, environmentally friendly remediation of contaminated sites is a significant challenge. This paper also evaluates current technological advancements in the remediation of polluted soil, such as stabilization/solidification, natural attenuation, electrokinetic remediation, soil washing, and phytoremediation. The ability of biological approaches, especially phytoremediation, is cost-effective and favorable to the environment.
Journal Article
Modeling and development of technology for smelting a complex alloy (ligature) Fe-Si-Mn-Al from manganese-containing briquettes and high-ash coals
Investigation of the possibility of obtaining a complex master alloy used in the deoxidation of steel, smelted from substandard manganese-containing materials, briquettes, and high-ash coals in ore-thermal electric furnaces. Thermodynamic modeling was carried out using the HSC Chemistry software package to determine the optimal process parameters using a second-order rotatable plan (Box-Hunter plan). Thermodynamic modeling improves the understanding of physical and chemical processes, allows making predictions about the behavior of the system under various conditions, optimizing processes and saving time and resources necessary for experiments. Electric smelting of the briquette was carried out with coal and quartzite (to adjust the chemical composition and neutralize residual carbon) in an ore-thermal electric furnace with a power of up to 150 kV*A. The influence of temperature on the equilibrium distribution of silicon, manganese, and aluminum in the «briquette-coal-quartzite» system, the degree of transition of silicon and manganese into a complex ligature and the content of these metals in the alloy are determined by the method of thermodynamic modeling. As a result of experiments on ore-thermal electric smelting of a briquette with high-ash coal, a complex ligature was obtained with an average content of 45.92–53.11% silicon, 27.72–34.81% manganese and 5.60–6.91% aluminum.
Journal Article
Study of the Influence of the Thermal Capacity of the Lining of Acid Melting Furnaces on Their Efficiency
First of all, the smelting equipment is the most important component of a foundry’s main production process and therefore requires constant reproduction. This is ensured by timely and high-quality maintenance and repair, the cost of which is 8–12% of the total costs. The technical and economic conditions of the enterprise itself depend on this, as the productivity of workers during production is directly related to the technical condition of the equipment and its downtime for repairs. An important factor in ensuring a melting furnace’s reproduction is a replacement of the worn lining, which leads to downtime of the smelting furnace and reduces the efficiency of its operation. The amount of torque required depends directly on the compound used. The quality of the manufacturing and sintering process of the lining, which provides the necessary durability, is affected by the heat capacity of the materials used when they are affected by the melting temperature of the alloys. In the present work, using the BRUKER D8 ADVANCE diffractometer, the Shimadzu XRF-1800 spectrometer and the STA 449 F1 Jupiter synchronous thermal analyzer, we probed the changes in the heat capacity of quartzite and PKMVI-3 under the action of temperatures of 200–1550 °C. This technology allows the manufacture of a lining that maintains high stability during operations at 1550–1600 °C melting modes.
Journal Article
Sustainable minerals and metals for a low-carbon future
Policy coordination is needed for global supply chains Climate change mitigation will create new natural resource and supply chain opportunities and dilemmas, because substantial amounts of raw materials will be required to build new low-carbon energy devices and infrastructure ( 1 ). However, despite attempts at improved governance and better corporate management, procurement of many mineral and metal resources occurs in areas generally acknowledged for mismanagement, remains environmentally capricious, and, in some cases, is a source of conflict at the sites of resource extraction ( 2 ). These extractive and smelting industries have thus left a legacy in many parts of the world of environmental degradation, adverse impacts to public health, marginalized communities and workers, and biodiversity damage. We identify key sustainability challenges with practices used in industries that will supply the metals and minerals—including cobalt, copper, lithium, cadmium, and rare earth elements (REEs)—needed for technologies such as solar photovoltaics, batteries, electric vehicle (EV) motors, wind turbines, fuel cells, and nuclear reactors. We then propose four holistic recommendations to make mining and metal processing more sustainable and just and to make the mining and extractive industries more efficient and resilient.
Journal Article
Tainted Earth
Smelting is an industrial process involving the extraction of metal from ore. During this process, impurities in ore-including arsenic, lead, and cadmium-may be released from smoke stacks, contaminating air, water, and soil with toxic-heavy metals.
The problem of public health harm from smelter emissions received little official attention for much for the twentieth century. Though people living near smelters periodically complained that their health was impaired by both sulfur dioxide and heavy metals, for much of the century there was strong deference to industry claims that smelter operations were a nuisance and not a serious threat to health. It was only when the majority of children living near the El Paso, Texas, smelter were discovered to be lead-exposed in the early 1970s that systematic, independent investigation of exposure to heavy metals in smelting communities began. Following El Paso, an even more serious led poisoning epidemic was discovered around the Bunker Hill smelter in northern Idaho. In Tacoma, Washington, a copper smelter exposed children to arsenic-a carcinogenic threat.
Thoroughly grounded in extensive archival research,Tainted Earthtraces the rise of public health concerns about nonferrous smelting in the western United States, focusing on three major facilities: Tacoma, Washington; El Paso, Texas; and Bunker Hill, Idaho. Marianne Sullivan documents the response from community residents, public health scientists, the industry, and the government to pollution from smelters as well as the long road to protecting public health and the environment. Placing the environmental and public health aspects of smelting in historical context, the book connects local incidents to national stories on the regulation of airborne toxic metals.
The nonferrous smelting industry has left a toxic legacy in the United States and around the world. Unless these toxic metals are cleaned up, they will persist in the environment and may sicken people-children in particular-for generations to come. The twentieth-century struggle to control smelter pollution shares many similarities with public health battles with such industries as tobacco and asbestos where industry supported science created doubt about harm, and reluctant government regulators did not take decisive action to protect the public's health.
eBook
Transient CFD Modeling of Matte Settling Behavior and Coalescence in an Industrial Copper Flash Smelting Furnace Settler
Copper losses into slag within the flash furnace settler is an economically important topic for the primary copper production. Since the settler is not easily accessible to experimental studies due to harsh reaction conditions, numerical simulations are a promising alternative to obtain more insights into the settling behavior of matte. This study aims to increase the process understanding by developing a CFD flash furnace settler model of an industrial flash furnace. Thereby, the CFD model accounts for bath level changes, polydispersity, and coalescence of matte. Coalescence is modeled by an own empirical model focusing on gravitational coalescence. Matte settling shows size-dependent sedimentation within the slag layer, as supported by an own sampling study. Lowering the slag viscosity by a third decreases the copper loss by approximately 37 pct, while slightly increasing it leads to comparable results. Finally, average copper losses of 0.98 wt pct are estimated, finding good agreement with industrial data.
Journal Article
Chronological Attribution of Iron-Smelting Furnaces and Landscapes of the Chuya–Kurai Paleo-Metallurgical Province (Russian Altai) Based on Tree-Ring Analysis and Radiocarbon Dating
Assigning the first Russian and the world’s longest 377-year “charcoal” tree-ring chronology (TRC) to the calendar time scale, multiple radiocarbon dating of charcoal fragments from archaeometallurgical slags and the find of tree bark have shown that the box-shaped iron-smelting furnaces of the Kosh-Agach type in the Chuya–Kurai paleo-metallurgical province (Russian Altai) functioned in the 7th–8th centuries AD, i.e., in Old Turkic times. These results clarify the recently announced problem of “ancient Turkic metallurgy paradox,” the inexplicable sudden disappearance of iron production in Southern Siberia in the 7th century AD. The constructed “charcoal” TRC indicates that the “old wood” effect in the high mountainous Chuya-Kurai region is at least 290–370 years, and the enrichment of slags with ancient parts of wood of long-lived trees does not allow the direct estimation of smelting time even with numerous
14
C dating. The only way to solve the “old wood” problem is to date the bark, which is a unique find. Cross-dating of charcoal fragments from the three distant paleo-metallurgical sites shows the presence of a common climatic signal: as early as about 1.5–1.3 kyr ago, the currently forestless eastern periphery of the Chuya basin was occupied by tree vegetation, which completely vanished under conditions of progressive aridization and massive cutting down by nomads for economic needs.
Journal Article
Debunking Deterministic Narratives of Technological Development Through Experimentation: A Critical Review of the Prehistory of Tin Bronze Alloying
The currently accepted narrative on the prehistory of bronze alloying technology follows deterministic, outdated assumptions of technological progression that ignore the role of contextual and performance factors in the decision-making processes, thus neglecting human agency. In essence, it is expected that newer techniques were overarchingly more advanced than older ones and hence replaced them. The validity of this narrative should be challenged and revised. A critical analysis of worldwide literature exposed that, contrary to predictions of the accepted theory, (1) the oldest alloying techniques persisted for centuries after newer ones were invented, and (2) several techniques usually coexisted in the same contexts. We hypothesised that these counterintuitive findings could be explained by differences in performance between techniques, (dis)advantageous at different settings. To obtain empirical information on the performance of techniques and test for behaviourally relevant performance differences between them, a series of alloying experiments were conducted. The results show that all techniques can produce objects of broadly equivalent quality while offering different trade-offs during production. Therefore, every technique—or a combination—can be advantageous under certain conditions, and there are no grounds to support a linear trajectory of substitution. These results debunk the traditional narrative and predict that co-smelting and cementation techniques were more frequently practiced in the past than hitherto assumed. Our propositions prompt a readjustment of explanatory models of bronze production organisation, trade, and consumption while opening unexplored research paths for archaeology and the history of technology.
Journal Article