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Satureja rechingeri Jamzad, which belongs to the Lamiaceae family, is a rich source of essential oil particularly carvacrol, and rosmarinic acid. Salinity stress significantly impacts plant growth and biochemical traits. The present study aimed to examine the impact of exogenously applied putrescine (PUT) polyamine (0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 mM) on the agro-morphological, physio-biochemical, and phytochemical traits of S. rechingeri plants cultivated under different levels of salt stress (0, 50, and 100 mM NaCl). Conducted as a factorial experiment with a completely randomized design. Results showed that PUT application ameliorated the negative effects of salt stress on agro-morphological traits, including plant height, leaf dimensions, biomass, and essential oil yield, alongside increased cell membrane integrity and leaf chlorophyll. Under severe salinity, biomass reduction by 55–60% was improved by up to 80% with 4 mM PUT. PUT also increased cell membrane integrity and chlorophyll content, with the highest chlorophyll enhancement observed at 4 mM PUT. In addition, higher PUT concentrations under salinity stress significantly promoted phytochemical traits. TPC and TFC increased by up to 34% and 51%, respectively, while rosmarinic acid rose by about 19% compared with untreated stressed plants. Essential oil content increased under salinity by 20–44%, and PUT application further elevated essential oil yield by more than 60%. Also, observed reducing in cell membrane damage, osmolytes like proline, antioxidant enzymes activity including superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase, and catalase (CAT), with application of PUT under salinity stress that highlighting PUT potential in increasing in antioxidant activity in order to decreasing ROS and reprograming osmolytes like proline, and antioxidant enzymes activities in order to enhancing plants resilience to salinity stress. Overall, putrescine application can be considered an effective approach to enhance the salinity tolerance of S. rechingeri , while improving agro-morphological parameters, secondary metabolite production, and supporting agricultural sustainability and essential oil production.

Satureja is rich in phenolic monoterpenoids, mainly carvacrol, that is of interest due to diverse biological activities including antifungal and antibacterial. However, limited information is available regarding the molecular mechanisms underlying carvacrol biosynthesis and its regulation for this wonderful medicinal herb. To identify the putative genes involved in carvacrol and other monoterpene biosynthesis pathway, we generated a reference transcriptome in two endemic Satureja species of Iran, containing different yields ( Satureja khuzistanica and Satureja rechingeri ). Cross-species differential expression analysis was conducted between two species of Satureja . 210 and 186 transcripts related to terpenoid backbone biosynthesis were identified for S . khuzistanica and S . rechingeri , respectively. 29 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) involved in terpenoid biosynthesis were identified, and these DEGs were significantly enriched in monoterpenoid biosynthesis, diterpenoid biosynthesis, sesquiterpenoid and triterpenoid biosynthesis, carotenoid biosynthesis and ubiquinone and other terpenoid-quinone biosynthesis pathways. Expression patterns of S . khuzistanica and S . rechingeri transcripts involved in the terpenoid biosynthetic pathway were evaluated. In addition, we identified 19 differentially expressed transcription factors (such as MYC4, bHLH, and ARF18) that may control terpenoid biosynthesis. We confirmed the altered expression levels of DEGs that encode carvacrol biosynthetic enzymes using quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR). This study is the first report on de novo assembly and transcriptome data analysis in Satureja which could be useful for an understanding of the main constituents of Satureja essential oil and future research in this genus.

The global rise in bacterial resistance to existing antibiotics has led to increased mortality rates and escalating healthcare costs, underscoring the urgent need for new classes of antibacterial agents that can act synergistically with current antimicrobials. This study aimed to isolate bioactive compounds from L. (Lamiaceae) and evaluate their effects in combination with ciprofloxacin (CIP), ampicillin (AMP), gentamicin (GEN), and tetracycline (TET). The adjuvant potential of naringenin (N), 5,6-dihydroxy-7,3',4'-trimethoxyflavone (TMF), cilicione-a (Cil), rosmarinic acid (Rs), rosmarinic acid methyl ester (MRs), and fulgidic acid was evaluated by determining the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of selected antibiotics in presence of sub-inhibitory concentrations of these compounds. The assays were performed against ten bacterial strains using the twofold broth microdilution method. Test samples were prepared in 96-well microtiter plates, incubated at 37 °C for 18 h, and dimethyl sulfoxide was used as the solvent control. N, Rs, and MRs reduced the MIC value of GEN from 0.78 µM to 0.097 µM against the drug-resistant AG100 strain. Additionally, the combinations of N and MRs with CIP reduced its MIC from 3.125 µM to 0.39 µM against . A MIC reduction (from 50 µM to 12.5 µM) was observed against the methicillin- and oxacillin-resistant strain when N, Cil, Rs, and MRs were combined with AMP. The MIC changed from 0.125 µM to 0.03125 µM against when N and TMF were combined with GEN. These findings highlight the potential of such combinations to enhance antibiotic efficacy, lower the required dosages, and contribute to mitigating the emergence of antimicrobial resistance.

Many medicinal plant species are currently threatened in their natural habitats because of the growing demand for phytochemicals worldwide. A sustainable alternative for the production of bioactive plant compounds are plant biofactories based on cell cultures and organs. In addition, plant extracts from biofactories have significant advantages over those obtained from plants, since they are free of contamination by microorganisms, herbicides and pesticides, and they provide more stable levels of active ingredients. In this context, we report the establishment of Satureja khuzistanica cell cultures able to produce high amounts of rosmarinic acid (RA). The production of this phytopharmaceutical was increased when the cultures were elicited with coronatine and scaled up to a benchtop bioreactor. S. khuzistanica extracts enriched in RA were found to reduce the viability of cancer cell lines, increasing the sub-G0/G1 cell population and the activity of caspase-8 in MCF-7 cells, which suggest that S. khuzistanica extracts can induce apoptosis of MCF-7 cells through activation of the extrinsic pathway. In addition, our findings indicate that other compounds in S. khuzistanica extracts may act synergistically to potentiate the anticancer activity of RA.

Satureja khuzistanica Jamzad. (Lamiaceae), is known for its antifungal and antioxidant compounds, especially rosmarinic acid (RA). The study examines the effect of elicitors on RA production and phytochemical properties of S. khuzistanica. In vitro plants were treated with methyl jasmonate (MeJA) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs). In vivo plants were treated with MWCNTs and salicylic acid (SA). RA was measured by HPLC. Catalase (CAT), guaiacol peroxidase (POD) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) were quantified. DPPH and β-carotene were assayed in in vivo extracts. The antifungal effects of extracts were evaluated against Fusarium solani K (FsK). The highest RA contents of in vitro plants were 50 mg/L MeJA (140.99 mg/g DW) and 250 mg/L MWCNTs (140.49 mg/g DW). The highest in vivo were 24 h MWCNTs (7.13 mg/g DW) and 72 h SA (9.12 mg/g DW). The maximum POD and APX activities were at 100 mg/L MeJA (5 and 4 mg protein, respectively). CAT had the highest activities at 50 mg/L MeJA (2 mg protein). DPPH and β-carotene showed 50% and 80% inhibition, respectively. The FsK aggregation was the lowest for in vitro extract in number of conidia [1.82 × 10 10 ], fresh weight (6.51 g) and dry weight (0.21 g) that proved RA inhibitory effects. The callus reduces FsK growth diameter to 2.75 on the 5th day. Application of MeJA, SA, and MWCNTSs could increase RA in S. khuzistanica and highlighted potential characteristics in pharmaceutical and antifungal effects.

The increasing global burden of oxidative stress-related conditions, diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders underscores the urgent need for multi-targeted, plant-based therapeutic agents. In this context, the present study aimed to evaluate the antidiabetic, antioxidant, and neuroprotective properties of various Satureja hortensis and Satureja montana extracts and essential oils. In vitro biological activities were assessed through α-glucosidase, acetylcholinesterase (AChE), and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) inhibition assays, along with DPPH• and ABTS• ⁺ radical scavenging assays. At a concentration of 100 µg/mL, S. hortensis root methanol extract (ShRME) and herb water extract (ShHWE) exhibited strong α-glucosidase inhibitory activity (69.88% and 71.23%, respectively). Conversely, S. montana herb water extract (SmHWE) and methanol extract (SmHME) showed the highest DPPH• radical scavenging activity (36.28% and 24.37%, respectively ). S. montana essential oil (SmEO) demonstrated notable inhibition of AChE (32.58%) and BChE (41.62%) at 1000 µg/mL, while S. hortensis essential oil (ShEO) inhibited BChE by 44.39%. GC-MS analysis revealed that SmEO primarily contained carvacrol (43.72%), γ-terpinene (17.24%), and p-cymene (14.56%), while ShEO was rich in thymol (39.84%), γ-terpinene (20.16%), and p-cymene (13.72%). These phenolic monoterpenes are likely contributors to the observed antioxidant and cholinesterase inhibitory activities. Principal component analysis explained 74.8% of the total variance and clearly separated the samples based on their activity profiles. Extracts were closely associated with glucose-regulating effects, while essential oils clustered with enzyme-inhibiting neuroprotective activities. These findings highlight the multifunctional therapeutic potential of Satureja species and support their further investigation as candidates for the development of plant-derived agents against oxidative stress, diabetes, and neurodegenerative diseases.

Satureja is an aromatic plant that is used for flavoring, perfume, and food manufacturing due to its pleasant essential oil. Modern medicine research revealed several biological activities of Satureja essential oil, including antifungal, antibacterial, antiviral, antioxidant, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory. However, the functional properties of Satureja fatty acid have not been explored. This study examined the fatty acid profile, lipid nutritional quality, antioxidant, anti-amylase, and anti-lipase capacities of Satureja . The efficiency of Satureja fatty acid on the anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory parameters in LPS-induced macrophage through the Nrf2/NF-kB/NADH oxidase pathway was examined. The whole lipid extract was prepared with chloroform/methanol/water solution. Fatty acids methyl ester from whole lipid extract were prepared with methanol/sulfuric acid reagent. The fatty acid profile was analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Total antioxidant was determined by ABTS decolorization. Lipase and amylase activities were determined by monitoring the decomposition of p -nitrophenyl butyrate and starch. The macrophage cell line was grown in DMEM media in the presence of fatty acid. The hydrogen peroxide production in treated cells was monitored using the FOX reagent. NADH oxidase activity was measured by monitoring NADH breakdown. The expression of NOX, NF-kB, and NRF2, were tested in the treated cells by real-time PCR. The main components of the Satureja fatty acid were linolenic acid (24.67–37.32%), palmitic acid (10.65–20.29%), linoleic acid (8.31–13.39%), oleic acid (4.42–14.35%), stearic acid (2.76–8.77%) and palmitoleic acid (1.77–4.95%). Given the nutritional quality, omega-3 PUFA (23.58–37.32%), SFA (21.53–26.70%), omega-6 PUFA (10.86–16.14%), omega-9 MUFA (4.42–14.35%), and omega-7 MUFA (1.77–4.95%) comprise the majority of fatty acids. Satureja fatty acid has a promising unsaturation index (120.77–164.27), PUFA/MUFA (2.07–6.41), hypocholesterolemic index (2.44–3.47), health-promoting index (2.03–2.42), PUFA/SFA (1.37–1.94), nutritive value index (0.53–1.71), MUFA/SFA (0.30–0.80) omega-6/omega-3 (0.34–0.65), atherogenicity index (0.41–0.49), and thrombogenicity index (0.17–0.27). Satureja fatty acid displayed strong antioxidant capacity (with IC 50 ranging from 354 to 428 µg/mL), anti-lipase capacity (with IC 50 ranging from 354 to 428 µg/mL), and anti-amylase capacity (with IC 50 ranging from 370 to 390 µg/mL). LPS induced the expression of NOX, NRF2, and NF-kB and the synthesis of hydrogen peroxide in macrophage cells. In LPS-stimulated macrophages, Satureja fatty acid reduced NOX expression, hydrogen peroxide, and NF-kB expression and increased NRF2 at 0.04 mg/mL. In conclusion, Satureja fatty acids have potent antioxidant, anti-amylase, anti-lipase, and anti-inflammatory activities. The mechanisms in lowering oxidative stress markers depended on down-regulating superoxide-producing enzymes at gene and protein levels. Satureja polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids could be recommended for healthy products combined with dietary therapy to treat obesity, diabetes, and oxidative stress.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) causes progressive dysfunction that induces biochemical and metabolic changes that lead to cell death. Nevertheless, there is no definitive FDA-approved therapy for TBI treatment. Our previous immunohistochemical results indicated that the cost-effective natural Iranian medicine, Satureja khuzistanica Jamzad essential oil (SKEO), which consists of 94.16% carvacrol (CAR), has beneficial effects such as reducing neuronal death and inflammatory markers, as well as activating astrocytes and improving neurological outcomes. However, the molecular mechanisms of these neuroprotective effects have not yet been elucidated. This study investigated the possible mechanisms involved in the anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic properties of SKEO and CAR after TBI induction. Eighty-four male Wistar rats were randomly divided into six groups: Sham, TBI, TBI + Vehicle, TBI + CAR (100 and 200 mg/kg), and TBI + SKEO (200 mg/kg) groups. After establishing the “Marmarou” weight drop model, diffuse TBI was induced in the rat brain. Thirty minutes after TBI induction, SKEO & CAR were intraperitoneally injected. One day after TBI, injured rats exhibited significant brain edema, neurobehavioral dysfunctions, and neuronal apoptosis. Western blot results revealed upregulation of the levels of cleaved caspase-3, NFκB p65, and Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, which was attenuated by CAR and SKEO (200 mg/kg). Furthermore, the ELISA results showed that CAR treatment markedly prevents the overproduction of the brain pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1 β , TNF-α, and IL-6. Moreover, the neuron-specific enolase (NSE) immunohistochemistry results revealed the protective effect of CAR and SKEO on post-TBI neuronal death. The current study revealed that the possible neuroprotective mechanisms of SKEO and CAR might be related to (at least in part) modulating NF-κB regulated inflammation and caspase-3 protein expression. It also suggested that CAR exerts more potent protective effects than SKEO against TBI. Nevertheless, the administration of SKEO and CAR may express a novel therapeutic approach to ameliorate TBI-related secondary phase neuropathological outcomes.

Background Globally, according to WHO estimates, severe periodontitis affects over 1 billion people. Porphyromonas gingivalis ( P. gingivalis ) is a keystone pathogen in the development of chronic periodontitis. Although two commercial essential oils (EOs) derived from Satureja montana L. (EO1) and Leptospermum scoparium J.R.Forst. & G.Forst. (EO2) have demonstrated promising antibacterial potential, their mechanisms against P. gingivalis and the influence of their distinct metabolite profiles remain unclear. Methods EO metabolite profiles were analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Antibacterial activity was assessed using the disk diffusion, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC), and bacterial growth curves. Their effects on hemagglutination, hemolytic, black pigmentation formation, autoaggregation, hydrophobicity, biofilm formation and virulence gene expression were evaluated. Molecular docking simulated interactions between metabolites and the virulence proteins. Cytotoxicity at MIC was tested in RAW264.7 cells using MTT assays. Results EO1 showed stronger antibacterial effects than EO2, with inhibition zone diameters (42.06 ± 1.62 versus 40.36 ± 0.47 mm), lower MIC (71.33 versus 305.00 µg/mL), and MBC (142.66 µg/mL versus 1220.00 µg/mL). The bacterial growth curves demonstrated sustained inhibition. EO1 can inhibit P. gingivalis hemagglutination, hemolysis ( p  < 0.05), and heme accumulation at 1/8 − 1/2 MIC, while EO2 only affected heme accumulation. Both EOs reduced P. gingivalis hydrophobicity levels below 50% at 1/4 to 1/2 MIC and achieved biofilm inhibition rates exceeding 85% at MIC ( p  < 0.05). The distinct inhibitory mechanisms against the pathogenic processes of P. gingivalis likely stem from their differing metabolite profiles. EO1 was dominated by monoterpenes (56.00 ± 0.55%), and the main metabolites were γ -terpinene (20.20 ± 0.38%), p -cymene (16.01 ± 0.66%), and carvacrol (14.50 ± 0.35%), whereas EO2 contained up to 71.19 ± 0.18% sesquiterpenes, its main metabolites were leptospermone (17.44 ± 0.40%). Molecular docking analysis predicted these metabolites as key active components. Besides, at MIC, cell viability was 86.68% for EO1 and 68.81% for EO2. Conclusion The comprehensive analysis reveals that EO1 and EO2 exert multi-mode antibacterial effects through different mechanisms. Notably, EO1 demonstrated greater potential against P. gingivalis , which may be attributed to its unique metabolite composition. These findings offer a theoretical foundation and new insights for advancing the application of EOs in the prevention and adjunctive management of periodontitis.

In the present study, two extracts from the aerial parts of the endemic species Satureja hispidula were analyzed for the first time by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with a diode array detector and an electrospray mass spectrometer (UHPLC-DAD-ESI/MS) method in order to identify and quantify their phenolic compounds. These extracts’ antioxidant, α-glucosidase and α-amylase inhibitory activities were also evaluated. UHPLC-DAD-ESI/MS allowed the identification of 28 and 20 compounds in the ethanolic and aqueous extracts, respectively; among them, 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid was the most abundant in both extracts. The biological assay results indicate that the species S. hispidula, besides its high antioxidant power, is also potentially useful for inhibiting the α-glucosidase enzyme. In both antioxidant and α-glucosidase inhibitory assays, the aqueous extract exhibited the most promising results, significantly better than the standards used as positive controls.